Patellar Tendinopathy Cause And Management Health And Social Care Essay

Patellar tendinopathy is considered to be the devolution of the kneecap sinew from overexploitation. It is more prevailing in activities that involve vigorous jumping and landing motions which produce the greatest sum of emphasis on the patellar sinew. Due to the increasing figure of showing instances of PT, it is necessary for clinicians to understand the pathophysiology of the status in comparing to the normal construction of the patellar sinew, the biomechanical factors act uponing the burden forces on the sinew and accordingly how to name and handle PT, as discussed in this paper. From our research it is clear that concrete grounds in footings of the predominating mechanism of hurt and most efficient intervention is still missing, and farther surveies in this country are required.IntroductionPatellar tendinopathy, frequently referred to as Jumper ‘s Knee, is a common hurt suffered by many jocks. It is considered to be a consequence of inordinate exposure to vigorous jumping and set downing force, hence its prevalence across athleticss such as volleyball, hoops and high leap. The patellar sinew is a continuance of the four quadriceps sinews and assists the extensor mechanism of the articulatio genus. The tight agreement of collagen fibers within the sinew can be capable to microtrauma due to overdrive. Because of the sinew ‘s decreased capableness to mend itself, the micro-traumas finally consequence in tendinopathy. Extrinsic and intrinsic biomechanical factors can act upon the burden forces that the sinew is capable to and can hence be considered lending factors to patellar tendinopathy. Clinically, the hurt can be diagnosed by the patient sing hurting on tactual exploration to the country and medically through the usage of imaging devices such as a MRI. The direction of patellar tendinopathy can either be conservative or surgical, with the recommendation being the usage of conservative steps for at least six months before surgery is considered . Due to the lifting Numberss of patellar tendinopathy amongst jocks and active persons, it is of import for clinicians to understand the mechanisms of the hurt and the intervention it requires.THE PREVELANCE OF PATELLAR TENDINOPATHYPatellar tendinopathy is a common hurt suffered by many persons in today ‘s society. A recent survey found that 14.2 % of jocks suffer patellar sinew hurting to some grade ( Lian et Al, 2005 ) . It is more prevailing in athleticss which require vigorous jumping and set downing techniques such as volleyball, high leap, hoops and activities affecting sudden alterations in way and speed. Another survey found that 44.6 % of male volleyball participants and 31.9 % of male hoops participants had clinical marks of patellar tendinopathy bespeaking the huge figure of jocks affected by the status ( Lian et Al, 2005 ) . In add-on, patellar tendinopathy is more common in males ( 13.5 % ) than females ( 5.6 % ) ( Lian et Al, 2005 ) . This gender difference has been attributed to the fact that work forces are able to bring forth more power and patellar torsion than adult females and are hence, subjected to greater land reaction forces ( Bisseling et al, 2007 ) . In old times, patellar tendinopathy has been associated entirely with grownup jocks. However, recent surveies have besides shown that the status is prevailing in junior jocks as good ( Brukner & A ; Khan, 2009 ) . Furthermore, patellar tendinopathy must non be isolated to the featuring universe as persons who participate in sudden alterations in activity and who are unaccustomed to such signifiers of exercising have besides presented with the status ( REFERENCE ) . Whilst the statistics mentioned above are comparative to their single surveies, their corporate consequences indicate a rise in the prevalence of patellar tendinopathy. The cause of this tendency is non known nevertheless research has suggested that the addition in developing frequence and strength, old ages of drama and the importance placed upon athletic public presentation in today ‘s society has contributed to the addition in physical strain and sensitivity to hurts such as patellar tendinopathy ( Hale, 2005 ) .THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PATELLAR TENDINOPATHYTendinosis describes the pathology of tendon devolution and a failed healing response ( Tan & A ; Chan, 2008 ) . At the point where repeating, microlesion-causing harm to the sinew is greater than the sinew ‘s capablenesss to mend it, microtrauma occurs. The sinew ‘s unequal ability to mend this microtrauma will ensue in tenocyte decease, with an increased decrease in reparative capacity and associated sensitivity to farther hurt. The terminal consequence is the formation of a tendinosis zone within the sinew ( i.e. patellar tendinopathy ) ( Peers & A ; Lysens, 2005 ) . Macroscopically, patellar tendinopathy contains soft, amber, disorganized tissue, different to the expected white and glittering tissue ( Hale, 2005 ) . Tendon s are typically structured in tightly bundled parallel collagen fibers, nevertheless, this is lost in patellar tendinopathy, where the collagen fibers are separated by increased land substance and look disorganised and loose ( Hale, 2005 ) . Peers & A ; Lysens ( 2005 ) province that the features of collagen devolution ( this degenerated collagen is replaced with necrotic tissue ) and fibrosis are common findings among surveies on patellar tendinopathy. Blood vass in the sinew are usually aligned analogue, nevertheless, the vass in tendinosis are indiscriminately oriented and most normally perpendicular. Vascular proliferation is besides normally seen in this hurt ( Hale, 2005 ) . Other features found in the pathophysiology of patellar tendinopathy include an addition in the glycosaminoglycan content of the sinew and the unnatural addition in the figure of fibroblasts. This hypercellularity of fibroblasts and cell proliferation happening at the joint indicates that patellar tendinopa thy is an on-going disease procedure ( Hale, 2005 ) . Inflammatory cells are absent in this upset, demoing that patellar tendinopathy is a non-inflammatory degenerative disease ( Hale, 2005 ) .THE BIOMECHANICAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO PATELLAR TENDINOPATHYAs patellar tendinopathy is a consequence of the devolution of the patellar sinew from inordinate and insistent land reaction forces, biomechanical factors can lend to the hurt. Abnormal extrinsic and intrinsic factors can impact the soaking up and transmittal of land reaction forces, which predispose the sinew to greater emphasis and therefore debasement. The greatest sum of emphasis occurs ( during jumping and landing? ) therefore the biomechanical factors during these motions are of high significance. ( REFERENCE? ) Intrinsic Biomechanical Factors The stiffness of the leg upon set downing Upon landing, the articulatio genuss bend to assist absorb the land reaction forces transmitted up the lower limb. A survey has shown that about 40 % of the landing burden is conveying proximately ( transmitted proximally? ) , foregrounding the importance of right pes, mortise joint and calf ( lower leg? ) biomechanics in order to cut down the burden on the patellar sinew ( Brukner & A ; Khan, 2009 ) . It has been shown that stiffer set downing techniques, by persons avoiding set downing burden, capable the patellar sinew to higher strain ( Bisseling et al, 2007 ) . The stiffness of the leg inhibits the daze soaking up mechanism of the quadriceps hence more ground reaction force is transmitted upwards towards the articulatio genus. Forefoot positioning on landing The optimum landing technique is one which reduces the sum of perpendicular land reaction force transmitted upwards. Evidence suggests that forefoot landing can cut down land reaction forces by 25 % if combined with hip or knee flexure ( Brukner & A ; Khan, 2009 ) . Therefore, set downing level footed increases the sum of land reaction force applied to the organic structure and familial upwards towards the articulatio genus, finally seting more emphasis on the patellar sinew. Muscle failing Failing of the gluteal, quadriceps and calf musculuss contribute to altered biomechanics of the patellar sinew ( Brukner & A ; Khan, 2009 ) . Diminished map of these musculus groups alter the daze soaking up of the land reaction force, weariness and alter motion forms ( Brukner & A ; Khan, 2009 ) . Each of these factors will act upon the sum of emphasis applied to the kneecap sinew. Pronation Initially it was thought that inordinate, drawn-out and/or late pronation altered the biomechanics of the kneecap sinew ( Ellenbecker, 2000 ) . However, more recent surveies have shown that it is the speed of pronation that alters the burden on the patellar sinew ( Grau et al, 2008 ) . This is due to the fact that an increased pronation speed causes earlier maximum tibial rotary motion, impacting the transmittal of forces towards the patellar sinew ( Grau et al, 2008 ) . Mal- alliance and mal-tracking of the kneecap Whilst the mal-alignment and mal-tracking of the kneecap is more normally associated with Patella Femoral Pain Syndrome, it can besides hold secondary effects on the patellar sinew. The high speed alteration in the line of pull of the sinew during lading and droping motions can change the forces moving upon the sinew ( Ellenbecker, 2000 ) . Extrinsic Biomechanical Factors Research has suggests that extrinsic factors act uponing patellar tendinopathy include playing surface, frequence of preparation and type of shoe ( Hale, 2005 ) . For illustration, a survey conducted on volleyball participants found that 37.5 % of those playing on cement surfaces developed patellar tendinopathy in comparing to the 4.7 % of those playing on parquet surfaces ( Hale, 2005 ) . It has besides been argued that as athletics alterations, and athletic public presentation becomes more of import, tendencies which increase the sum of strain on kneecap sinews have been established ( Hale, 2005 ) . Clinicians must recognize that any changes to intrinsic or extrinsic factors can act upon the burden upon the patellar sinew and contribute to patellar tendinopathyMANAGEMENT OF PATELLAR TENDINOPATHYPatellar tendinopathy is ab initio managed cautiously with the immediate intervention affecting abstention from activities which may worsen the status, ice, galvanism, massage, taping, anti-inflammatory medicine ( e.g. NSAIDs ) , or corticosteroid injections ( Bahr, 2006 ) . Improvements such as recovering strength, diminishing the thickness of the sinew and the standardization of the construction of the sinew can be seen after a sufficient and extended bizarre preparation plan ( Tan & A ; Chan, 2008 ) . Bizarre preparation is a low-risk and cheap option, and should be the first option tried before sing surgery ( Bahr, 2006 ) . Cook ( as cited in Peers, 2005 ) has developed a list of exercising rules to utilize as purposes when pull offing patellar tendinosis which include: Bettering musculotendinous map by integrating bizarre and plyometric exercisings Bettering the shock-absorbing capacity of the limb by beef uping the complete closed kinetic concatenation Retraining motor forms Keeping fittingness Stretching of hamstrings and calf muscular structure Continuing exercisings over six months Cook ( as cited in Peers, 2005 ) besides developed guidelines for an bizarre patellar sinew preparation programme: Use diminution knee bends, incorporated in complete sport-specific rehabilitation Exercise daily, one time or twice Exercise for at least 12 hebdomads Start at three sets of 10-15 reps Pain during exercising can be tolerated – increased pain the following twenty-four hours is non allowed When exercises become less painful, get down constructing up by increasing the figure of repeats, increasing the velocity of the motion, and adding burden. Orthotics may be used as a signifier of intervention and direction for patellar tendinosis as they have the ability to alter the biomechanics of the pes and the mortise joint, which may be a conducive factor to the hurt ( Tan & A ; Chan, 2008 ) . Using ice to the country can hold a pain-relieving consequence, cut down the metabolic rate of sinews and diminish the extravasations of blood and proteins from the new vass formed in the injured sinew ( Tan & A ; Chan, 2008 ) . There are several surgical processs that can be used on patellar tendinopathy patients. It is by and large recommended that the patient should be sing patellar tendinopathy symptoms and functional damage for at least six months after get downing conservative intervention before they consider surgery ( Peers & A ; Lysens, 2005 ) . There is a assortment of options for surgical direction, with some processs taking to take the degenerative tissue or interrupt the sinew or the tibial tubercle ( attachment site ) in order to originate redness and healing ( Hale, 2005 ) . Others involve surgical debridement of the sinew, in which the degenerative tissue is removed ( Hale, 2005 ) . Some of the methods include unfastened tenotomy with deletion of macroscopic necrotic country, arthroscopic patellar tenotomy, drilling/resection of the inferior pole of the patellar, resection of the tibial fond regard with realignment/quadriceps bone-tendon transplant, longitudinal tenotomy, transdermal longitud inal tenotomy and transdermal needling ( Peers & A ; Lysens, 2005 ) .DecisionPatellar tendinopathy is a turning job amongst today ‘s jocks and active persons. For this ground, it is imperative that a sound clinical apprehension of the pathophysiological alterations, lending biomechanical factors, methods of diagnosing and intervention options, is obtained. In visible radiation of this, it is of import that farther surveies are conducted into the direct mechanisms of hurt and the optimum direction of the status so that clinicians can be more efficient in their intervention of the status and bring forth more optimum results for their patients with patellar tendinopathy.

The Glass Menagerie: What Sort Of Atmosphere Is Created and How Is It Achieved In The Opening Three Scenes

There are many factors which can contribute to the pervading atmosphere of any play. But in this play there are peculiar, original ways in which Williams's goes about this. The Glass Menagerie would seem like a harder play to create a dense atmosphere for because of the small amount of characters and the only one setting. A major difference in this play is evident directly from the beginning. This is the narration that the audience is given by one of the main characters, Tom. It is strange because once his narration is given, Tom jumps directly into the dialogue. This resembles very much a film, because with camera and voice over techniques the narration is made a lot easier. We also know that Williams started by writing screenplays and so this use of Tom would have come from his Hollywood experiences. The mood created by Tom is ambiguous and it depends on the reader. The social history which is described by Tom, â€Å"†¦ the huge matriculating in a school for the blind†¦ is in the negative while the vivid description of the play is written in a very melancholy but interesting tone, â€Å"†¦ it is sentimental†¦ † Williams gives very strict stage directions and this can only contribute to the atmosphere, even without lines being read. â€Å"Atmospheric touches and subtleties of direction play a large part†¦ † the opening description of the set and how it should be set out is one of the largest factors of atmosphere. Williams uses words and phrases such as â€Å"dark, grim rear wall†¦ † and â€Å"murky canyons of tangled†¦ inister lattice work†¦ † With directions like this, the modern director is obviously going to create a almost gothic picture of scary darkness, and it is because of these directions that atmosphere is formulated so easily. The fact that this is â€Å"a memory play† automatically gives atmosphere to the audience. Even Williams himself tells us that â€Å"this play can be presented with unusual freedom from convention† is allowing the director to cut the strings a little and maybe take the play into areas which might have a greater effect on the audience. A good example of this is found in the directions also, â€Å"memory is seated predominately within the heart. † The immotive and exaggerated nature of the play will no doubt transfer to the atmosphere. The use of the screen is also a large part of the atmosphere. It is a very unusual device and it is obvious that because of his film experience Williams has included the screen. So he is capable in some ways of being able to manipulate the play in similar ways to a film. For example, a film can suddenly cut to a completely different place, with different characters. The screen allows extra freedom with emotions. It also compliments very well the â€Å"memory† aspect of the play in which actions or scenery can be unnatural. It can be said that the screen has a symbiotic relationship with the memory, we know as humans that memory is not straightforward and direct, and that the mind can paint wonderful pictures. It is this sense of mind, which the screen adds to the atmosphere.

Ferdinand de Saussure and Onject of Study: a Brief Illustration Essay

Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist who laid the foundation on the ideas of structure in the study of language. His Book Course in General Linguistics that was published in 1916 has detailed all that he claimed to be his views. In his book Saussure shows us a clear reaction against many of the ideas raised and he emphasizes the importance of seeing language as a living phenomenon as against the historical view, of studying speech, of analysing the underlying system of a language in order to demonstrate an integral structure, and of placing language firmly in the social milieu. Saussure’s theoretical ideas are a must read and his influence has been unparalleled in European Linguistics since and, it had a major formative role to play in the shaping of linguistic thoughts in Europe. Saussure’s Object of Study theorised his structuralist view of language and shows how his essay forms the basis of structuralist theory. Saussure equipped his essay with a theory and a method of linguistic analysis from the structuralist point of view. Saussure envisaged langage to be composed of two aspects- the language system and the act of speaking. Langage is that faculty of human speech that is present in all human being due to heredity, and it requires the correct environmental stimuli for proper development. It is our facility to talk to each other which Saussure has infused in his work. Saussure also argues strongly that the characteristics of the system of language are really present in the brain, and are not simply abstractions. It is something which the individual speaker can make use of but cannot affect by itself. It is a corporate and social phenomenon. Saussure in the very beginning of the essay claims that the linguistic study cannot be judged from the study of other sciences. Linguistic study is completely a different process. In linguistic a particular object of study may have several series of different things- the sound, the idea, the derivation- to light up after study. Hence Saussure says that the object of study cannot be at the first to the view point. It is the viewpoint that creates the object of study. The linguistic phenomena can be always found in bi-complimentary facets which are dependent on one another. That is, the perception of the ear of the articulated syllables as the auditory impressions cannot be the sounds in questions that come to be existed with the vocal organs. Speech sound is no equal to language and they do not exist independently and are mere instruments of thoughts whereas, language is completely an individual aspect. Saussure emphasis on these two distinctions comes at this point of his analysis. The language system as Saussure admits should be studied independently. He cites the example of Dead language that even though it is no longer to be spoken, however, we can acquaint to its linguistic structures. The language is incongruous and its systems are of similar nature. The language is a structured system and it differs from speech. Saussure has cited a example of a man who has lost his power of speech can also grasp the language system through vocal signs by which he can understand. Saussure in his essay discusses the linguistic structures as only to be a part of language even though it is an integral part of it. The structure of a language is both the social product and the body of necessary conventions adopted by society to enable members of society to use their language faculty. It comprises in various domains and it is purely physical, psychological and physiological. It is for the individual and for the society. The language faculty of the both rest upon the structure of the language and there cannot be a proper classification for that as such language has no proper distinctions. The linguistic structures are that faculty in the study of language by which the articulating words, natural or not, are put in use only by means of linguistic instruments that are created and provided by society. The language itself is a structured system and a self contained whole and principle of classification. Saussure in his essay mentions the role of speech circuits of how speeches are exchanged from one individual to another. He gave a proper illustration of it with a proper diagram. This he calls purely a physical process. In order to understand this tract one must leave the individual act, which is merely language in its young stage, and he proceeds to consider it a social phenomenon. If done so all individuals will linguistically link among themselves and all individuals will reproduce whether it may or may not be that exact but will be almost the same signs related to the same concept. Saussure says that the language cannot be the function of the speaker but it is a passively registered product of the individual whereas, speech is the act of the will and of intelligence of the individual. In his essay, Saussure also speaks about the evolution of language from times. There are some words which are rarely spoken in our daily contemporary word and usage of such words in our day to day life is kind of absurdity. So Saussure argues that language and linguistics goes on evolution from time to time. It is an institution of the present and of the past at any given time. Saussure also notes on the sciences that claims to language as falling under their domain. But Saussure says that their methods are different and are not as it were needed. He says that the linguists should only take up his primary concern in studying language and to manifest all other concerns with it. Saussure also speaks about the question of the vocal apparatus and he says it a secondary one in comparison to language. Linguists disagree to the notion about the vocal apparatus and it is not clear that the vocal apparatus is solely made for our speaking as that our legs are made for walking. Saussure cites the example of Whitney who regards this vocal apparatus is that we uses for our linguistic purposes. The contribution of Saussure in the concept of language system is the main theoretical contribution and many linguists feel that it was this facet of his thought which had the most profound influence on subsequent scholarship. His view of a language as a system of mutually defining entities is a conception which underlay his works to philology. It is fundamental to his account to his structure in language. Any sentence, for Saussure, is a sequence of signs, and each signs contributes something to the meaning of the whole, and each contrasting with all other signs in the language. The sign, for Saussure is the basic element of a language. A sequence of a syntagmatic relationship- which is a linear relationship between the signs are present in the sentence. The sign is the basic unit of communication and it is a mental construct. Saussure accepted that there must be two sides of meaning that posits a natural relationship between words and things. His labels for the two sides were signifier and signified, one which the thing which signifies and the other the thing that is signified. It can also be taken as the concept and the acoustic image. The signified is thus always omething of an interpretation that is added to the signifier. He calls this relationship a linguistic sign. This linguistic signs are not abstractions, although they are essentially psychological. Linguistic signs are, so to speak, tangible and writing can fix them in conventional images, whereas it would be impossible to capture the acts of speech in all their details. When we say signified, this do not exist in sensible form, it is a thought and creation of mental image that the signifier has signified. Saussure’s main concern is linguistic sign does not link a name and a thing; instead it links a concept and an acoustic image. That is, language is more than just a list of terms that correspond to things. An acoustic image is the mental image of a name that allows a language-user to say the name. However, a linguistic sign links signifier and signified. A signifier is the sound we say when we say an object, and the signified is the concept of that said object. The said object is the sign. In Saussure’s theory of linguistics, the signifier is the sound and the signified is the thought. The linguistic sign is neither conceptual nor phonic, neither thought nor sound. Rather, it is the whole of the link that unites sound and idea, signifier and signified. The properties of the sign are by nature abstract, and are not concrete. He says that the linguistic principles operate on two principles. The first principle is that the linguistic sign is arbitrary as there is no interior link between the concept and the acoustic image. The second is that the signifier being auditory in nature unfolds in time only. When the signifier and the signified are joined together they produce a sign which is of positive order, and concrete rather than abstract. The idea of structuralist theory has achieved the status largely on the account of Saussure Object of Study which made it the major linguistic theme of the later years after his death. The linguists were also much influenced by the notions of Saussure, although less directly. The essay forms the basis of a concept of language as a vast network of structures and systems was emphasised on the syntagmatic relationships of the Saussurean emphasis in structures which was taken as the keynote of a number of theories of language and which underlies many other linguistic approaches to language. The central tenet of structuralism is that the phenomena of human life, whether language or media, are not intelligible except through their network of relationships, making the sign and the system (or structure) in which the sign is embedded primary concepts. As such, a sign — for instance, a word — gets its meaning only in relation to or in contrast with other signs in a system of signs. Thus we can analyse that Saussure’s Object of Study has its basis of the structuralism theory.

Titanic disaster affect on JP Morgan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Titanic disaster affect on JP Morgan - Essay Example After participating in this major merger, he thereafter created the federal steel company by merging several steel corporations together in the year 1901. He further undertook some consolidations consolidating steel and wire companies to form the United States Steel Corporation. At the height of Morgan’s career, he and his partners had vast investments in both the financial and the corporate fields and were accused of their critics of controlling the nation’s high finance a criticism that he dispelled through a banking coalition in 1907. Despite such dispelled rumors, facts have it that Morgan was the lead financier of the Progressive era and his dedication and efficiency contributed in injecting transformations in the American businesses "J.P. Morgan, FDIC tangle over who will pay off WaMu liabilities."(2010). This is the man behind the Construction of the American owned vessel, the Titanic through financing the International Mercantile Marine Company (IMMC) and as the owner of the company. This company controlled trust and retaining ownership of the White Star Line, Red Star Line, Dominion Line, American Transport Line, and the Leyland Line. During the construction of the Titanic, the vessel was American owned as mentioned but Morgan kept the ships of his trust under the British registry with the British crew. He did this to escape accuses of violating the American Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 most so after the act had taken down J.D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. It is worth noting that Most of the vessels flew both American and British flags with the White Star Line burgee (Levinson 1912 pg 36-9). In addition to this massive investment, Morgan also owned US Steel, General Electric and numerous banks and other financial institutions. JP Morgan and company continue to thrive today as JP Morgan Chase. Did the sinking of titanic affect the JP Morgan Corporation According to Merchants and masterpieces (1995), if JP Morgan’s company I MM was not actually down then we can say that it was seriously wounded after the Titanic fiasco. The war at the time caused a lot of havoc to the company and the company crumbled during the war years. Most of the businesspersons in America at that time expressed interest of discounting all the dreams of Morgan without expressing any signs that they might one day try and pick up the pieces to recapture the visions that Morgan had in the near future. JP Morgan and his partners like Harriman, Hill and Hanna collective dream of the transportation industry failed but the legacy they left behind still lives with us up to date. The name Morgan is still around with us today most so his great contribution in the banking industry though JP Morgan & Chase "J.P. Morgan, FDIC tangle over who will pay off WaMu liabilities."(2010) Their legacy in the transportation industry though a company like Citibank lives with us to date though the pieces of the transportation network they constructed fell aw ay gradually. The white star line continued to date although it is quite hard for it to recover completely from the destructions caused by the Titanic and the same destruction took place with the IMM (Morris 2005 pg 126). The IMM and the white star line suffered another major loss most so after the loss caused by the Titanic and the onset of the war. This loss had an impact on the massive commercial travels across the Atlantic routes in the year 1916. During this time, the Britannica had served as the hospital ship from the time it was launched in 1914, within the same period specifically in November 21st the ship got a hard hit on a mine and sank off the island

Labor Relations & Deregulation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Labor Relations & Deregulation - Essay Example Between 1978 and 1985, wages for airline mechanics fell significantly. Deregulation led to increase of computerization in the air industry. This was commonly used in cutting down transaction costs on the airline industry. It led to massive unemployment since computers replaced most of human labor (Kaps, 15). One of the major benefits of airline deregulations was the fact that employees who had lost their jobs during the deregulation phase, enjoyed greater unemployment benefits that were provided to them in the 1978 Act. This was included in order to appease the workers. On the other hand, airline companies improved benefits for their customers while increasing competition among airline service providers (Kaps, 18). Airline labor union bargaining powers became reduced after the deregulation. Before the deregulation, the union managed to advocate for wage inrease, efficient and friendly working rules and working conditions. After the deregulation, many workers faced improper and harsh working conditions and rules. These workers also faced irregular job losses. In conclusion, airline workers found themselves having fewer jobs and high demand on their productivity. The airline labor union role and powers were diminished and regulated. While the airline industry has become more productive and affordable to its consumers, laborers have lost jobs and wages and benefits reduced (Kaps,

Nagorno Karabakh Conflict - Law and War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Nagorno Karabakh Conflict - Law and War - Essay Example Second Geneva Convention 1949 is composed of 63 articles and mainly provides protection for those sick, wounded and shipwrecked soldiers who are involved in fighting war at sea. The Third Geneva Convention 1949 concentrates on war prisoners and has 143 articles. The category of the prisoners and their places of captivity are more precisely mentioned in the articles. Their financial assets and legal proceedings against them are also considered. The articles also state that the prisoners should be given civilised treatment and they should be given proper medical aid. The Fourth Geneva Convention 1949 deals with civilians although they are not involved in wartime activities. It has 159 articles and they were adopted after the World War II when it was seen that absence of such convention had disastrous effects on the civilians. It deals with protection of civilians against the consequences of wars. It distinguishes between foreigners on territories belonging to parties involved in war an d civilians in territories occupied during war. It also has a special clause for civilian interns. There is a common Article 3 which specifically deals with non-international armed conflicts that take place within the boundary of states. Such conflicts cover â€Å"traditional civil wars and internal armed conflicts†. This article states that all hostages should be treated in humane manner and prohibits murder and torture of the hostages. The â€Å"sick, wounded and shipwrecked† should be given proper medical aid. The Articles provides rights to the ICRC to help the parties in conflict (â€Å"The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols†).... The â€Å"sick, wounded and shipwrecked† should be given proper medical aid. The Articles provides rights to the ICRC to help the parties in conflict (â€Å"The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols†). The major portion of IHL is stated in the Geneva Conventions. There are some other agreements:- 1) protection of cultural property, 2) prohibition of use of weapons in armed conflicts that can cause harm to civilians, unnecessary suffering or long lasting damage to environment, 3) prohibition of children from getting involved in armed conflicts. This law also introduced several identifiable symbols and one common example is the Red Cross. There have been innumerous violations of IHL and one major example is the Nagorno- Karabakh Conflict (â€Å"What is International Humanitarian Law?† 2) International Criminal Law is formed to prohibit atrocities on people and such perpetrators will face legal proceedings. This law can be distinguished according to the acts of atrocities. The offensive conducts may be international or transnational. International crimes include thread against world security, genocide and war crimes. Transnational crimes include drug trafficking and terrorism among other crimes (Partin). Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Since early 1988, the area of Nagorno-Karabakh has been in dispute and been the cause of major conflicts between the South Caucasian nations of Azerbajian and Armenia. Throughout the conflict there have been thousands of deaths and even more refugees. A portion of over 14 percent of the area has been occupied by the Armenian forces after evicting all the Azeri population. The conflict is considered as internal or

Adaptive Change in Law Enforcement Supervision Essay

Adaptive Change in Law Enforcement Supervision - Essay Example Adaptive change involves altering attitudes, behaviors, or long-standing values in order to be responsive to changing conditions within the organization. This theory runs under the assumption that there will be resistance to change, and this makes adaptive responses more challenging, since adapting will require changing mindsets and sometimes even principles to ensure an effective change plan and implementation. Heifetz’ principles of adaptive change are highly relevant in the contemporary police organization, requiring multiple competencies of supervision in order to create a cohesive and flexible policing organization. The supervisor, according to Heifetz, must be able to recognize when individual or organizational values will be a risk to a change and determine when the specific challenge will require adaption to determine a problem resolution. According to Stephens (2005, p.53), policing has historically maintained a system of values and attitudes that represent a â€Å"s low-to-change subculture†. In the modern police organization, it is becoming a common practice to be more interactive with local citizens and local government as part of cooperative, community-minded policing activities.

In regards to gender Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

In regards to gender - Assignment Example ry works like To Penhurst, Leviathan, and From Slaves Deus Rex Judaeorum by renowned authors like Ben Jonson, Thomas Hobbes, and Aemilia Lanyer respectively. Being one of the first female writers to be printed in English, Aemilia wrote ‘Eve’s apology in defense of women.’ Lanyer offers a different interpretation of this story, shifting some blame on Adam, the supposed stronger of the two. The superiority of men is acknowledged in this instance, and Eve’s betrayal is constantly used to ‘keep her in place. ’ Jonson’s Penhurst recognizes the significant role of human decency to social contracts. Hobbes’ Leviathan echoes this concept as he highlights a contract as the basis for collective moral order as well as all social organizations. To this end, both the two latter authors agree that despite having equal rights to all things, human beings must give up some of their rights in favor of

What makes Shenzhen China a unique and interesting illustration of Assignment

What makes Shenzhen China a unique and interesting illustration of geographic processes - Assignment Example (Cartier, 2001) This city is one of the most unique and a great option for those who wish to migrate to a place which is an amalgamation of natural and artificial beauty. This city was initially considered as a fishing village but with the passage of time things have evolved and it is considered as a modern city with great tourist attractions and facilities. The currency of Shenzhen is Renminbi which is known as People’s currency and has a short form of RNB. Basically Shenzhen is considered to be coastal area which is situated Guangdong district which is in south east China, just near to the boundary (border) between Hong Kong and China. (Zeng, 2010) Guangzhou is considered as the capital city of the Guangdong district which was commonly referred to as Canton for relatively long period of time. This region has rough forested mountainous region which acts like a background for a fairly large coastal region. Shenzhen is apparently demarcated into six individual districts namely Nanshan, Yantian, Longgang, Luoho, Futian, and Bao’an. It is approximated that three districts that sum up for most of the major Shenzhen area are Futian, Nanshan and Luoho. These districts directly join with Hong Kong. The most important city of Shenzhen is Futian which is thought to be the city centre. Shenzhen is considered to be a subtropical region which has long summers that are very hot and humid. This climate approximately lasts from April to September. The temperature ranges from 30-35 degree Celsius in the months of June and July. This range is given for extreme summers when temperature tends to be very high for this period. This temperature is not fixed and it sometimes even goes higher than the range mentioned earlier. The temperature gets lower at nights but still it is fairly hot with temperature ranging from 25-30 degree Celsius. The summers are quite unpredictable during the monsoon when rains usually happen. Furthermore there is

Culture diversity in Chinese hospitality industry Essay

Culture diversity in Chinese hospitality industry - Essay Example The BRIC countries are seen as the most attractive business markets of these times. These countries consist of Brazil, Russia, India and china. Thus, this is also one of the reasons why hospitality industry is at the rise in the Chinese market at the moment. However, whether it’s a foreign or local set-up, it is important that the hotels have a diverse workforce as cultural diversity makes it easier for them to cater to people from various backgrounds who visit the country.  Ã‚  With 80 million travelers in 2012, China exceeded US and Germany in becoming the largest source of travellers in the world, depicting the trend of growth of the market. That being said the Chinese market itself has been identified as the key markets for innovation where high end and middleclass hotels are expected to consolidate, budgeting options to become more innovative and sophisticated hospitality needs be catered to increasingly through the expansion of international chains to establish resorts and recreational arenas. The government of china has also highlighted tourism as one of the major growth sectors in its five years plans and facilitates foreign investment in the tourism sector by offering real estate discounts, tax exemptions and priority approvals for their set-up (Atkearney.com, 2013). With a focus on tourism, the country is bound to attract people belonging to diverse backgrounds from the world over.in order to cater to their needs on a better manner, it is important for the hospitality industry in China.

The Rolling Stones Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Rolling Stones - Essay Example This took place at the Flamingo Jazz Club in Soho, London (DeRogatis and Kot 16-20). This paper seeks to discuss the Rolling Stones band and the impact they had in history. The Rolling Stones have had profound impact in both society and history. This was mostly seen in their fashion. The stones mode of dressing in the 1960’s was strange and somehow unacceptable in the society of this period. Their hair was usually long contrary to society of the day that men should have short hair. In addition, they lived openly with their girlfriends but failed to commit to marriage. This was contrary to society perception in the 1960’s. Old people in society of the time believed young men and women used courtship as a foundation for marriage. Consequently, the old people viewed them as degenerates, a lost lot, and having bad influence to their generation (DeRogatis and Kot 15). In contrast, young people adored them and they had a major influence on the character of young people (DeRogatis and Kot 15). The Stones were always against the society norm and therefore were against society dictatorship. The kids of the day were also against society conformity and standards. Hence, the Stones changed society in myriad ways. The other important thing of Rolling Stones was their lyrics. Their lyrics talks about real life and captures the attention of the teenagers around the globe. They demonstrate the victory of the youth over old in society. More so, their behavior was wanting and this made them rub shoulders with society. This is especially on their constant use and praising of drugs in their music. This made some of them die due to influence of drug while others underwent rehabilitation. Brian is said to have died in the swimming pool because he was under drug influence. Their clothes, accents and negative attitude about the issues that existed in society is a reflection of the Sixties era (DeRogatis and Kot 40-47). Moreover, Rolling Stone have had political and

Catherines Monologue Essay Example for Free

Catherines Monologue Essay A few minutes earlier, when I was dancing with Rodolpho to Paper Doll, I started thinking. I started thinking how much my life had changed these past few months, and how much I have changed. My life has changed in that I have two new people in it, one of which I think I love. I have a job and I now feel more independent. Its a good feeling. Well thats setting the scene for you, I guess its time to let it all out. Eddie has been like a surrogate father to me. Ive always felt comfortable around him; Ive been able to talk to himbut lately, all that security has just dissolved. Its almost the opposite. We cant have a normal conversation without fighting. I mean for example, a few days ago I came home with Rodolpho from a movie at the paramount. I started telling him about movie, I was so excited. But all he did was start-shooting questions as me, Whered you go? Brooklyn Paramount? Of course I went to Brooklyn Paramount! Where else would I go? He knows that I wouldnt go to New York! Then he tells Rodolpho he wants to talk to me alone. He starts telling me how he never sees me anymore, his face looked so sad. I started to reassure him, that of course he still saw me, it was just Rodolpho wanted to do so much, see so many things, so I take him. Suddenly he asked me, Do you like him? I answered, Yes, and it all went down hill from there. He started saying horrible things like, Rodolpho was only interested in my to gain citizenship and how he was only using me and had no respect for me. That wasnt Eddie speaking. I had never known Eddie to be like that ever. Sure, he had always been slightly over-protective, but never like this before. After the incident B came and talked to me. She told me how I had to grow up. Be my own person; make him understand that I wasnt a little girl anymore. She pointed out things to me that I had never noticed before, like how I used to walk around in front of him in my slip or sit on the edge of the bathtub and talk to him while he was shaving in his underwear. I never even thought about that before. But B, she notices these things sharp. I dont know, she just seemed really eager for me to get out of the house, get married, leave. She even asked me if I thought she was jealous of me! When she said that, I had never thought about it before. But since she has said that, Ive started to think about it more and more. Could B be jealous? Of me? Its absurd! B, who is so kind, and sweet and who I love so much like a mother, be jealous of me? It just doesnt fit. I dont know why I even thought of it. I guess Im just thinkin crazy these days. And last of all, Rodolpho. I think I love him, actually I am quite sure now, I do love him. Should I marry him? What other option do I have? Like B said, I cant just stay here all my life. But the thing is, Im scared. Im scared of Eddie. I didnt think I would ever say that, but its the truth. When I say Eddie and Rodolpho boxing, and the look on Eddies face, I knew somethin wasnt right. Beatrice didnt get it, I think Marco did. Maybe hes just doing it to protect me? He protects me because he loves me; that makes sense. But sometimes I think Eddie loves me too much, and thats what scares me.

Analysis of the Indian Civil Aviation Industry

Analysis of the Indian Civil Aviation Industry Civil Aviation Scenario Evolution In December 1910, a party from Belgium and two from England with many aircrafts arrived in India. The first amongst them was famous Humber motor companies. The team was led by Capt WG Windham, comprising two pilots, one French and one English and two mechanics. After reaching Bombay (Mumbai) they proceeded to Allahabad to demonstrate the aircraft at the Industrial Exhibition due to be held there shortly. The first actual flight was successfully attained by Mr. David in a Beriot on the 10th of December 1910 circled the Polo ground at a height of 25 to 30 feet. The second aircraft flew the next day, December 11, 1910, under the control of French Pilot Piguet and carried the first passenger in India. He was one of the sons of the Maharaja of Benares In a show at Tollygunj, near Calcutta on December 21, 1910, in a show Baron flew with a lady passenger Mrs. N.C. Sen who thus became the first woman in India to get airborne. The history of civil aviation in India started with its first commercial flight on February 18, 1911. It was a journey from Allahabad to Naini made by a French pilot Monseigneur Piguet covering a distance of about 10 km over the river Yamuna. The first domestic air route Karachi-Delhi began in December 1912 by the Indian State Air Services in collaboration with the Imperial Airways, UK. It was actual extension of London-Karachi flight The Indian aviation gathered momentum after three years (1915) with the opening of a regular airmail service between Karachi and Madras by the first Indian airline- Tata Sons Limited October 15, 1932, JRD Tata started Tata Aviation and piloted the first carriage of mail from Karachi to Bombay. Tata Aviation later became Air India. At the time of Independence, there were 9 air transport companies operating in India. Tata Airlines, Indian National Airways, Air Service of India, Deccan Airways, Ambica Airways, Bharat Airways, Mistry Airways and Oriental Airways Air Corporation Act of 1953 was passed nationalising all airlines. Air India International took over the international traffic and Indian Airlines Corporation the domestic. Sector structure/Market size The Indian civil aviation industry is among the fastest growing industries in the world with its growth rate of 18% per annum. Number of players as well as the number of aircraft is increasing in India at it is mainly due to the open sky policy of the government, because of which many overseas players are entering in the aviation market. Today, private airlines account for around 75 per cent share of the domestic aviation market. India was at 12th position in the world’s aviation market in 2006, but it has improved its position holding 9th position at present.In the year 2006 the domestic air services were available at 75 airport in India which has improved up to 82 airports now. Month-wise Indian Scheduled Domestic Operation (Aircraft Kms Flown) of Civil Aviation in India (May 1988 to December 2008) In India the air passenger travel is increasing at about 25% a year since the aviation sector opened up the skies to private carriers. Government has estimated that by 2025 the growth of aviation sector in India will outpace the global average. Currently the aviation sector is going through bad phase which started from 2008 after economic slowdown hit the market in 2008, while year 2007 was the best ever in terms of growth for Indias civil aviation sector. The domestic airlines passenger load increased by 36.47 % (to 317.29 lakh passengers) in the first three quarters of 2007. International Air Transport Association (IATA), estimated about the Indian aviation sector that India will contribute significantly to global air travel. This contribution which was US$ 5.1 billion in 2007 will soon cross US$ 5.6 billion after the market condition will be stable and then it will grow significantly. In 2007 market research firm PhoCus estimated that domestic air traffic will be more than double and touch 86.1 million passengers by 2010, up from 32.2 million passengers in 2007. But after economic slowdown this estimate may take some time to achieve after 2010. Opportunities Aviation sector is going to play a major role in terms of employment in this sector. There is going to be huge demand for technical and administrative employees in this sector due to the vast growth of aviation sector in the future. Aviation sector is not only limited up to pilots and air-hostesses but there are many employment options in this sector which are related to aviation and without which industry cannot function. Some of the Operations jobs include: Pilots, airhostesses, air traffic controller, cabin safety instructor, in-flight managers, In-flight base managers, cabin services instructor, maintenance controllers, aircraft maintenance engineers, quality control manager, cargo officers and ground staff. There is also a wide range of positions on the ground and these include the services of mechanics, baggage handlers, ticket agents and reservations agents. Potential for Growth and its future The Indian Civil Aviation market was worth US$ 5.6 billion in 2008 which has grown at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18 per cent. According to Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation (CAPA) the domestic traffic will increase by 25% to 30% till 2010. Also international traffic will grow by 15 per cent and total market will have more than 100 million passengers by 2010. At present the Indias civil aviation passenger growth is 20% and it is one of the highest in the world. By 2020, 400 million Indian passengers are likely to be airborne. More than 100 million passenger in which 60 million will be domestic passengers and around 3.4 million tons of cargo per annum are expected to handle by the Indian airports by 2020. There are many significant steps which are still to be taken by the government to propel growth in the Indian civil aviation sector. Indian government is already working on its plans to modernize existing airports by 2010 and is investing more than US$ 9 billion in the project. There is also a plan of the government to develop around 300 unused airstrips. Kapil Kaul, CEO India Middle East, Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation (CAPA), in an interview said that Indias civil aviation passenger growth is among the highest in the world. â€Å"The sector is slated to cruise far ahead of other Asian giants like China or even strong economies like France and Australia. The number of passengers who will be airborne by 2020 is a whopping 400 million.† The markets being as it is holds great promise for potential investors and numerous International no-frills budget carriers are making a beeline for India. With so much activity in the sector there is a tremendous need for personnel as well. While earlier, the airline industry was largely government owned and perceived as regulated and also a tad boring, with private and international players entering the market, opting for a career in the airlines has become both a lucrative and glamorous option To meet the growing demand, Indian scheduled carriers are placing major orders for aircraft. Based on press reports, Indian carriers placed orders over US $12 billion at the 2005 Paris Air Show. Of the 280 aircraft order received by Airbus, 135 are from Indian carriers. Moreover, of the $50 billion that Airbus can earn from these deals, the contribution of Indian carriers is over $15 billion. Airbus forecasts that the number of new aircraft it would sell to Indian carriers would go up to 400 by the year 2023. This will make the India the third largest market for new aircraft in Asia, behind China (1,790) and Japan (640), according to Airbus Global Market Forecast 2004-2023. The aviation industry is of the view that the European aircraft maker may have to again revise its projection upwards. The report further states that Boeing expects India to buy aircraft worth $35 billion in the next 20years. As per a press report, the Center for Asia Pacific Aviation (CAPA) estimates India domestic airlines would need 650 new aircraft by 2012, up from the current 210. Every new carrier launched in the country will need to buy a minimum of five aircraft to start operations, as stipulated under the license condition, in the next 12 months. Inter Globe Enterprises has placed firm orders for 100 aircraft worth $6.5 billion. The anticipated fleet augmentation planned by airlines of India are shown in Table Source DGCA It will be observed that India is likely to see large increase in aircraft registered in India and operation of such fleet would result in straining of aviation infrastructure. Policy decisions have been undertaken to enhance the airport infrastructure. Another component of aviation infrastructure that is of crucial importance to growth of Civil Aviation is up-gradation of capacity to train critical manpower. The training for making available operating crew and maintenance personnel is an expensive exercise and requires long gestation period. Prior to liberalization in early 90’s, the two State-owned airlines had established elaborate training infrastructure to train critical manpower for their needs. The training plans were evolved based on its fleet expansion plans. In the first phase of domestic market liberalization in early 90s the requirement of critical manpower had placed a strain on availability of this human resource. Large scale poaching of critical manpower from one airline to another had been resorted to. The growth of fleet in the first half of the current decade had again resulted in shortage of operating crew and maintenance personnel. The series of steps have been taken recently to meet the present shortfall of cockpit crew that include increase of eligibility age of pilots from 60 years to 65, permission to ex-pat pilots to operate airline services etc. Industry is still facing problem besides opening up of doors for foreign pilots. In fact DGCA has taken a lead role to alleviate the situation of shortage of pilots in all possible manners without compromising the safety aspects. Private airlines are equipping themselves with flight simulators for pilot training including recurrent checks. Indian Airlines has been inducting CPL holders for its training program at CTE Hyderabad. Air India has embarked on a planned program to cater to long-term requirement of pilots by resorting to induct trainees for outsourced training to PPL CPL level thus enabling them to be inducting into ab-initio training program at its training establishment. Based on the fleet augmentation plans of various airlines and expected increase in the number of airlines, the requirement of critical manpower is expected to be the key factor in maintaining sufficient operating capacity to meet the growing demand for air travel in the country. Demand For Operating Crew The requirement of operating crew, of which cockpit crew is most critical due to long gestation period in training and need for elaborate and expensive infrastructure involving training aides such as aircraft simulators and other equipment in addition to training aircraft. The demand for operating crew in the country is based on the combined fleet augmentation proposed by all existing scheduled airlines and the prospective entrants into the air transportation business. Apart from schedule operators, pilots are also required by a large number of existing non-scheduled operators involved in charter operations and also for corporate aircraft owned by large business houses. Since the unprecedented growth rates achieved in the domestic market, and huge orders placed by airlines for new aircraft to cater to expected passenger carriage in the market, government, airlines, and other research institutions involved in civil aviation have been making projections for pilots requirements in the country. The projection by various bodies are at variance depending upon their estimation of the size of the market and expectations of the fleet size. The Center for Asia Pacific Aviation (CAPA) estimates that Indias domestic airlines would need 650 new aircraft by 2012, up from the current 210. This projection results in annual induction of over 70 aircraft that would require over 500 pilots per year for the new aircraft yet to be inducted. While evaluating the emerging aviation scenario, Kaw Committee (2006) had the following to say about critical manpower requirements to meet future needs: â€Å"Induction of large number of aircraft would require more than thousand additional type-rated pilots and equally large number of type-rated engineers in span of a decade, to meet the growth requirements, in addition to the recurring requirement of the licensed personnel. At present, most of the private operators get their pilots and engineers trained at the facilities of aircraft manufacturers or approved training organizations abroad. Considering the huge potential of training engineers and pilots in the country, some agencies, including aircraft manufacturers are thinking of establishing type-training facilities in India. DGCA will have to be strengthened to conduct examinations and licensing of large number of pilots and engineers required to operate and maintain the additional aircraft being acquired†. Currently there are 1650 ALTP commercial pilots licensed by the DGCA to meet requirements of over 200 aircraft operated by scheduled airlines and 2300 CPL holders meeting the airlines and general aviation aircraft. There are about 500 expatriate pilots assisting airlines in keeping airlines aircraft flying. The total requirement of pilots that would have to be trained from initial stage should take into account natural wastage on account of superannuation. FAST estimates consolidated additional requirement of pilots for the Scheduled/ non-scheduled airlines and the corporate sector at around 3000 pilots during the five years (2007-2012). Broad estimation of the requirement is shown below in Table In the present civil aviation scenario, the fleet plans of various airlines can undergo changes keeping in view growth rates on micro basis and intensity of future competition. The projection of requirements of pilots on year-to-year basis is therefore fraught with uncertainties, but a projection of pilot requirement on a longer time horizon is likely to be more realistic. Demand for Pilot Training Apart from air transportation of passengers on scheduled services and corporate travel, another potential area that has not seen much development is the need of air transportation for disaster management and medical relief /evacuation. In the coming years the use of small aircraft /helicopters is likely to become prevalent and air linking of district centers with State capitals/ major towns will be necessary. Operation of aircraft for this sector of aviation will also add to requirements of pilots. It may be noted that there is great demand for Pilot Training in India that has arisen due to phenomenal growth in air travel spurred by economic growth during the past. The present policies of the Government of India pertaining to emphasis on infrastructure and services sector leads to a very positive economic outlook that will have impact on the air transportation sector. The growth of traffic recorded in recent years is likely to be sustained in the immediate future and is expected to stabilize at a reasonable level. The sustenance of this growth is dependent on the growth and development of Aviation infrastructure of which training of critical manpower is a very important feature. Type of Training Flying Training Institutes offer various levels of trainings for commercial flying. These include Private Pilot License (PPL), Commercial Pilot License (CPL), Multi-engine Rating, and Instrument rating; apart from Commercial Helicopter Pilot License, Flight Instructor License/Rating, and Airline Transport Pilot License. In the first phase it is proposed to impart training for PPL and CPL as these trainings involve flying training on single engine aircraft. For multi engine rating and IR rating, induction of twin-engine aircraft is required along with requisite training aids such as specific aircraft simulator. Eligibility Qualifications for Entry to PPL/ CPL course Candidates for PPL training should have completed Senior Secondary Examination (10+2). Minimum age of 17 years is prescribed for induction into the course. PPL holders would be eligible to be inducted for CPL training and should have PPL issued with 50 hours of flying and not less than 10 hours of solo flying within a period of preceding 12 months. The flying club issues student Pilot license after checking the general capability of the student to continue flying training such as enough leg space in the cockpit. Selection Procedure The selection of candidates may be done on the basis of a written examination followed by Pilot Aptitude Test and Interview. The written examination for entry into PPL course will be on general subjects such as English, Physics, Mathematics and Reasoning, where as for CPL written exam will be for subjects of Air Navigation, Aviation Met, Technical general and Air Regulations. Ground Courses and Flying Training Ground Courses: Topics for the ground courses that are laid down by DGCA for PPL and CPL along with duration are shown in Table 2.1. Trainee Intake Course Duration PPL Course: The Institute in the First Phase will cater to induction of a batch of 20 trainees for PPL course. Initially induction will be carried out twice a year. During the second year of operation of institute four batches of 20 trainees each are proposed to be inducted at three monthly intervals. Trainees are expected to complete PPL Course, Simulator and Flying Training in six months. The course work and part simulator training will be completed in three months followed by intensive flying training of 50 flying hours per trainee. CPL Course: The CPL course will commence during the second year of institutes’ functioning Training Infrastructure Flying and Gliding Clubs: It is observed that Flying and Gliding Clubs have been receiving financial assistance from the Central Government ever since their inception in 1928. This assistance gradually increased on the recommendation from various Committees set up for the purpose from time to time. It is also to be noted that in addition to receiving subvention from the Central Government most of the clubs were receiving grants and donations from the State Governments and other private organizations besides the revenue earned through: Flying fees paid by the trainees Membership fees/subscriptions etc. The subvention budget was raised to 3.5 crores by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. Later on this subvention was withdrawn except for SC/ST candidates. All the flying clubs except private one’s became sick due to non-subsidy to students as it was a great burden for pilot student to pay for full flying cost. Flying clubs are generally private bodies headed by Deputy Commissioner of the district, with Sr. public person and DGCA member on its board. Equipment i.e. aircraft are purchased by the Central Government (DGCA or Aero Club of India) and given to flying clubs but remain property of DGCA. Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Udan Academy (IGRUA) was set up in Fursatganj in U.P. to provide quality training to the pilots. The Academy envisaged a quantum improvement in the standards of flying and ground training of Commercial Pilots in the country. For this, the Academy is equipped with most modern and sophisticated trainer aircraft, up-to-date audiovisual training aids and other facilities for effective ground training. Highly qualified flying and ground instructors, with long experience in the field of aviation and flying training were recruited. Academy is funded by Ministry of Civil Aviation (Air India Indian) and is equipped with latest aircraft /simulator. It has produced a large number of pilots who are serving airlines. IGRUA charges Rs.16.5 lakhs for CPL training. IGRUA uses mainly TB-20 trainer aircraft and it charges per flying hour is Rs.12, 000/-. IGRUA have been permitted to admit 100 flying students per year. IGRUA is supported to the tune of Rs.10 crores (approximately) on its recurring annual account. Proposed Training Establishment At Gondia in Mahrashtra: Ministry of Civil Aviation (MCA) is in the process of setting up National Flying Training Institute (NFTI) at Gondia in Maharastra. MCA is concerned regarding shortage of world-class facilities for training the pilots in India to meet the large-scale demand of well-trained pilots. Ministry also envisages that specific infrastructure meeting the needs of International Standardized Flying Training including the research and development in the fields of pilot training, aviation related innovated and practical courses comparable to the requirements of standards of CAR, issued by DGCA (India). ICAO, FAA (of USA) and other international training centers of repute should be established. NFTI is a green field training center and aims to develop NFTI investment as viable economic units. NFTI may have institutional structure which meet the DGCA requirements for flying training. These are Society registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 Statutory body under an Act of Parliament Company incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 Foreign Training Institutes/ Schools: Indian flying students also go abroad for flying training and obtaining PPL and CPL in foreign Academies predominantly in USA, Canada and Australia. The pilots having successfully completed the training program receive license issued by Civil Aviation Authorities of respective countries. DGCA accepts the license of foreign aviation authority and endorses the license after passing of the students of three papers and flight check by the DGCA pilot. The duration of obtaining CPL license is comparatively much less and may cost about $US 20,000/- as fees. The student pilot also pays additional expenditure for boarding and lodging and traveling Process For Grant Of Approval For Flying Training Institute Approval for setting up Flying Training Institute is issued by the DGCA in accordance with CAR Section 7, Series â€Å"D† Part 1 issued in July 1999 and subsequently amended from time to time. This document details eligibility requirements, and describes the process in details along with minimum requirements relating to infrastructure, procedures and manpower for grant of approval This document is applicable for flying training activities with aircraft having maximum certified take off mass not exceeding 5700 kgs. The document also encloses formats for applicants to be utilized at various stages in the process. Eligibility requirements for issue of approval: Approval of organizations undertaking flying training activities can be granted to Central Government or state owned or controlled ones. Indian citizens, Nonresident Indian, or overseas corporate bodies can also apply for setting up flying training institutes. A company registered in India having its principal place of business within India with or without foreign equity participation (excluding NRI equity as approved by Government of India from time to time is covered in eligibility criteria. Stages of Approval Under the prescribed process, approvals are granted stage-wise. The stages are as under: Grant of Initial ‘No Objection Certificate’ Permission for import/ acquisition of Aircraft Grant of Approval Grant of Initial No Objection Certificate (NOC) Stage 1 Application is to be made to the Director General of Civil Aviation in prescribed format. For issue of initial NOC, Security clearance and FIPB approval (in case of foreign equity participation) is necessary. Application should contain following information with supporting documents. Following details are required to be furnished in the application: Memorandum of Articles of Association duly registered with the competent authority No Objection Certificate from Airports Authority of India from air traffic point of view No Objection Certificate from Owner of the airport for use of airport for setting up of training institute and for providing parking and Hangar space. Financial soundness of applicant Project report giving details of organization, manpower, training plans, infrastructure and equipment for the institute, source of funding, viability of project etc. Details of Directors of the Board and Chairman/ CEO for necessary security clearance Type and number of aircraft and simulator and source of procurement Submission of requisite fee Initial NOC will be granted after the application is found satisfactory from the point of view of need of training institute, airport capacity and constraints at the proposed airport, suitability of proposed aircraft type, aircraft maintenance arrangements etc. This NOC is valid for one and half years during which applicant will take necessary steps to comply with requirements and acquire final approval for starting the training institute. Issue of permission to import of Aircraft Stage 2 Initial NOC holder will take necessary steps to the satisfaction of DGCA for establishing required infrastructure, recruitment and training of manpower, preparation and approval of training manual, maintenance system manual, MEL, Maintenance schedules, security program etc. Initial NOC holder will furnish necessary information to show that the specific aircraft proposed to be imported meets the requirements for import of aircraft and that all mandatory modifications and airworthiness directives are complied. On demonstration of necessary preparedness the initial NOC holder will apply to the Ministry of Civil Aviation for grant of permission to import/ acquire aircraft in the prescribed format. The permission to import aircraft shall be valid for one year extendable by three months on one time basis. For new aircraft extension may be permitted for actual lead-time of the delivery. Grant of Approval Stage 3 For the final grant of approval institute shall have necessary training aids, Hangars, suitable space for aircraft maintenance, well lighted workshops and fire fighting / safety equipments. Well-marked and adequate parking bays and taxi tracks along with facilities for mooring should be available. Adequate space for engineering, maintenance, operations and classrooms should be in place. The institute should have a well equipped library with aviation books, literature, up to date flying training circulars/ compendium, CARs, AICs, AIP, Jeppson Charts route maps etc. Chief flight instructor/ Flight Instructor, in-charge and Quality control Manager should be recruited for whom DGCA approval is obtained. Adequate number of flight instructors, ground instructors and engineering personnel should be employed. Specific approval is necessary for employment of foreign licensed pilots/ engineers. On completion of necessary preparedness, applicant will apply to DGCA for grant of approval to the flying institute. The application should cover the following aspects: Particulars of specific aircraft with installation of mandatory instruments and equipment Certification of Registration and Certificate of airworthiness of the aircraft Approval of the maintenance organization Name, license/ approvals and endorsements of flight instructors/ engineers Comprehensive insurance policy covering aircraft, occupants and third party risks in accordance with requirement Compliance of relevant CAR and conditions for initial NOC if any Details of facilities, equipment, procedures and necessary manpower. On satisfactory review by the DGCA, a team constituted in DGCA will carry out inspection of the institute. If the institute meets all requirements DGCA will grant approval to the institute that shall be valid for one year and shall be renewed each year. Sources For Instructors The sources from where instructors could be recruited are as follows: From general aviation Indian Air Force International Market There is a shortage of instructors at present in the Indian aviation market. However, NEC can approach Indian Air force for instructors on deputation. The instructors can also be sourced from the International market. Company Profile (Foundation for Aviation and Sustainable Tourism) Vision of FAST Foundation for Aviation and Sustainable Tourism (FAST) to be a Think Tank evaluating policies and a Research Organization of Repute. About FAST(Foundation for Aviation and Sustainable Tourism) Foundation for Aviation and Sustainable Tourism(FAST) is an international. non-government, non-political, autonomous research organization was founded in the year 1992 .It is not working for the profit but its objective is to promote the Civil Aviation and Tourism in harmony with the environment and provides common platform for the industry and the government to find a workable solutions. Its main aim is to function as an institutional base for the study of all aspects with regard to civil aviation and tourism including their management Organization Former Secretary General, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Dr. S.S.Siddhu is the founder Chairman of this organization. Lt. Gen (Retd.) K M Seth, PVSM, AVSM, former Governor of Tripura and Chattisgarh is the president. Former Executive Director, Airport Authority of India (AAI) Mr. Gurcharan Bhatura is the director general of FAST. Mr. B.K Joshi, former Joint Director General of Civil Aviation is the secretary general. Board of trustees FAST is managed by the board with following trustees: Lt. Gen. (Retd.) K.M. Seth PVSM, AVSM Former Governor of Tripura Chattisgarh Mr. N.N. Jha IAS (Retd.) Mr. B.N. Jha,IAS (Retd.) Mr. Uma S Bhartia, Manager Director India Glycols Ltd Mr. P.R.S. Oberoi CMD, East India Hotels (Oberoi group of hotels) Mr. Siddhanta Sharma, Chairman Spice Jet Mr. VP Agrawal, Member (Planning) AAI Mr. Gurcharan Bhatura, Director General, FAST. Executive Council Lt. Gen. (Retd.) K.M. Seth AVSM, PVSM former Governor of Tripura Chhattisgarh, President FAST Mr. M. P. Bezbaruah, IAS (Retd.) Mr. Raghu Menon, CMD, National Aviation Company of India Limited Mr. Anil Bhandari, MD International Travel House Ltd Mr. Kanu Gohain, Director General Civil Aviation Mr. Parvez Dewan, CMD India Tourism Development Corporation Mr. R. Krishnan, Consulting Editor Cruising Heights Mr. Raman Sidhu India Head, Corp Affairs Fidelity international Mr. MM Bhagat, Chairman Bhagat Group Mr. Gurcharan Bhatura, Director and Secretary General Mr. B. K. Joshi, Treasurer Corporate Members and Members from industry There are many members of this organization which is from the aviation industry. Some are as follows : Mr.Naresh Goyal – (

Job Specialization and the Division of Labour

Job Specialization and the Division of Labour Introduction Car production has changed dramatically over the years as managers have applied different views or philosophies of management to organize and control work activities. Prior to 1900, workers worked in small groups, cooperating to hand-build cars with parts that often had to be altered and modified to fit together. This system, a type of small-batch production, was very expensive; assembling just one car took, moving conveyor belts bring the car to the workers. Each individual worker performs a single assigned task along a production line, and the speed of the conveyor belt is the primary means of controlling their activities. Ford experimented to discover the most efficient way for each individual worker to perform an assigned task. The result was that each worker performed one siderable time and effort; and workers could produce only a few cars in a day. To reduce costs and sell more cars, managers of early car companies needed better techniques to increase efficiency. Henry Ford revolutionized the car industry. In 1913, Ford opened the Highland Park car plant in Detroit to produce the Model T. Ford and his team of manufacturing managers pioneered the development of mass-production manufacturing, a system that made the small-batch system almost obsolete overnight. In 1913, Henry Ford revolutionized the production process of a car by pioneering mass-production manufacturing, a production system in which a conveyor belt brings each car photo, taken in 1904 inside Daimler Motor Co., is an example of the use of small-batch production, a production system in which small groups of people work together and perform all the tasks needed to assemble a product. to the workers, and each individual worker performs a single task along the production line. Even today, cars are built using this system, as shown in this photo of workers along a computerized automobile assembly line, specialized task, such as bolting on the door or attaching the door handle, and jobs in the Ford car plant became very repetitive. Fords management approach increased efficiency and reduced costs so much that by 1920 he was able to reduce the price of a car by two-thirds and sell over two million cars a year.2 Ford Motor Company (www.ford.com) became the leading car company in the world, and many competitors rushed to adopt the new mass-production techniques. Two of these companies, General Motors (GM) and Chrysler, eventually emerged as Fords major competitors. The CEOs of GM and Chrysler-Alfred Sloan and Walter Chrysler-went beyond simple imitation of the Ford approach by adopting a new strategy: offering customers a wide variety of cars to choose from. To keep costs low, Henry Ford had offered customers only one car-the Model T. The new strategy of offering a wide range of models was so popular that Ford was eventually forced to close his factory for seven months in order to reorganize his manufacturing system to widen his product range. Due to his limited vision of the changing car market, his company lost its competitive advantage. During the early 1930s, GM became the market leader. The next revolution in car production took place not in the United States but in Japan. A change in management thinking occurred there when Ohno Taiichi, a Toyota production engineer, pioneered the development of lean manufacturing in the 1960s after touring the US plants of the Big Three car companies. The management philosophy behind lean manufacturing is to continuously find methods to improve the efficiency of the production process in order to reduce costs, increase quality, and reduce car assembly time. In lean manufacturing, workers work on a moving production line, but they are organized into small teams, each of which is responsible for a particular phase of car assembly, such as installing the cars transmission or electrical wiring system. Each team member is expected to learn all the tasks of all members of his or her team, and each work group is charged with the responsibility not only to assemble cars but also to continuously find ways to increase quality and reduce costs. By 1970, Japanese managers had applied the new lean production system so efficiently that they were producing higher-quality cars at lower prices than their US counterparts, and by 1980 Japanese companies were dominating the global car market. To compete with the Japanese, managers at the Big Three car makers visited Japan to learn lean production methods. In recent years, Chrysler Canada has been the North American model for speed in automobile production. Chryslers Windsor, Ontario assembly plant opened in 1928, and over 54 years built its first five million vehicles. Less than 11 years later, in 1994, the plant reached the eight million mark. Chryslers Windsor facility has made a reputation for itself as the biggest single experiment with flexible manufacturing methods at one site. In the last 20 years, the plant has been so successful that Ken Lewenza, President of Local 444 of the expected to meet peak demand for the firms most popular products. On July 24, 2000, the plant reopened its doors after being shut down for just two weeks to retool for the newest generation of DaimlerChrysler AG minivans, due in dealers showrooms a month later. That was by far Windsors quickest turnover, but flexible manufacturing procedures introduced in 1983 have enabled the plant to display North Americas speediest production turnovers. In 1982-83, the plant shut down for 16 weeks to retool from making sedans to the first models of the Chrysler minivan, and then in 1995, it closed for 12 weeks for retooling to produce the next generation of minivans. While the Windsor facility has been a model for quick turnarounds, Canadas auto industry in general has fared well with the advancements in lean production methods. One analyst suggested that Canada is in the golden era of the auto sector in Canada, with a chance to outpace Michigan as early as 2001. As this sketch of the evolution of global car manufacturing suggests, changes in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for better ways to utilize organizational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to perform the principal management tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources. Scientific Management Theory: The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizations-political, educational, and economic-were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers needs. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries. Small workshops run by skilled workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing. Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work together in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the worker-task mix. Job Specialization and the Division of Labour: Manufacturing methods. The first was similar to crafts-style production, in which each worker was responsible for all of the 18 tasks involved in producing a pin. The other had each worker performing only 1 or a few of the 18 tasks that go into making a completed pin. Smith found that factories in which workers specialized in only 1 or a few tasks had greater performance than factories in which each worker performed all 18 pin-making tasks. In fact, Smith found that workers specializing in a particular task could, between them, make 48,000 pins a day, whereas those workers who performed all the tasks could make only a few thousand at most. Smith reasoned that this difference in performance was due to the fact that the workers who specialized became much more skilled at their specific tasks, and, as a group, were thus able to produce a product faster than the group of workers who each had to job specialization The process by which a division of labour occurs as perform many tasks. Smith concluded that increasing the level of job specialization-the process by which a division of labour occurs as different workers specialize in different tasks over time-increases efficiency and leads to higher Based on Adam Smiths observations, early management pract itioners and theorists focused on how managers should organize and control the work process to maximize the advantages of job specialization and the division of labour. To discover the most efficient method of performing specific tasks, Taylor studied in great detail and measured the ways different workers went about performing their tasks. Principle 1: One of the main tools he used was a time-and-motion study, which involves the careful timing and recording of the actions taken to perform a particular task. Once Taylor understood the existing method of performing a task, he tried different methods of dividing and coordinating the various tasks necessary to produce a finished product. Usually this meant simplifying jobs and having each worker perform fewer, more routine tasks, as at the pin factory or on Fords car assembly line. Taylor also sought ways to improve each workers ability to perform a particular task-for example, by reducing the number of motions workers made to complete the task, by changing the layout of the work area or the type of tool workers used, or by experimenting with tools of different sizes. Principle 2: Codify the new methods of performing tasks into written rules and standard operating procedures. Once the best method of performing a particular task was determined, Taylor specified that it should be recorded so that the procedures could be taught to all workers performing the same task. These rules could be used to standardize and simplify jobs further-essentially, to make jobs even more routine. In this way, efficiency could be increased throughout an organization. Principle 3: Carefully select workers so that they possess skills and abilities that match the needs of the task, and train them to perform the task according to the established rules and procedures. To increase specialization, Taylor believed workers had to understand the tasks that were required and be thoroughly trained in order to perform the tasks at the required level. Workers who could not be trained to this level were to be transferred to a job where they were able to reach the minimum required level of proficiency. Principle 4: Establish a fair or acceptable level of performance for a task, and then develop a pay system that provides a reward for performance above the acceptable level. To encourage workers to perform at a high level of efficiency, and to provide them with an incentive to reveal the most efficient techniques for performing a task, Taylor advocated that workers should benefit from any gains in performance. They should be paid a bonus and receive some percentage of the performance gains achieved through the more efficient work process. This decision ultimately resulted in problems. For example, some managers using scientific management obtained increases in performance, but rather than sharing performance gains with workers through bonuses as Taylor had advocated, they simply increased the amount of work that each worker was expected to do. Many workers experiencing the reorganized work system found that as their performance increased, managers required them to do more work for the same pay. Workers also learned that increases in performance often meant fewer jobs and a greater threat of layoffs, because fewer workers were needed. In addition, the specialized, simplified jobs were often monotonous and repetitive, and many workers became dissatisfied with their jobs. Scientific management brought many workers more hardship than gain, and left them with a distrust of managers who did not seem to care about their wellbeing. These dissatisfied workers resisted attempts to use the new scientific methods unable to inspire workers to accept the new scientific management techniques for performing tasks, some organizations increased the mechanization of the work process. For example, one reason for Henry Fords introduction of moving conveyor belts in his factory was the realization that when a conveyor belt controls the pace of work (instead of workers setting their own pace), workers can be pushed to perform at higher levels-levels that they may have thought were beyond their reach. Charlie Chaplin captured this aspect of mass production in one of the opening scenes of his famous movie, Modern Times (1936). In the film, Chaplin caricatured a new factory employee fighting to work at the machine imposed pace but losing the battle to the machine. Henry For d also used the principles of scientific management to identify the tasks that each worker should perform on the production line and thus to determine the most effective way to create a division of labour to suit the needs of a mechanized production system. From a performance perspective, the combination of the two management practices (1) achieving the right mix of worker-task specialization and (2) linking people and tasks by the speed of the production line-makes sense. It produces the huge savings in cost and huge increases in output that occur in large, organized work settings. For example, in 1908, managers at the Franklin Motor Company redesigned the work process using scientific management principles, and the output of cars increased from 100 cars a month to 45 cars a day; workers wages increased by only 90 percent, however. From other perspectives, though, scientific management practices raise many concerns. Ethics in Action: From 1908 to 1914, through trial and error, Henry Fords talented team of production managers pioneered the development of the moving conveyor belt and thus changed manufacturing practices forever. Although the technical aspects of the move to mass production were a dramatic financial success for Ford and for the millions of Americans who could now afford cars, for the workers who actually produced the cars, many human and social problems resulted. With simplification of the work process, workers grew to hate the monotony of the moving conveyor belt. By 1914, Fords car plants were experiencing huge employee turnover-often reaching levels as high as 300 or 400 percent per year as workers left because they could not handle the work-induced stress. Henry Ford recognized these problems and made an announcement: From that point on, to motivate his workforce, he would reduce the length of the workday from nine hours to eight hours, and the company would double the basic wage from US$2.50 to US$5.00 per day. This was a dramatic increase, similar to an announcement today of an overnight doubling of the minimum wage. Ford became an internationally famous figure, and the word Fordism was coined for his new approach. Fords apparent generosity was matched, however, by an intense effort to control the resources-both human and material-with which his empire was built. He employed hundreds of inspectors to check up on employees, both inside and outside his factories. In the factory, supervision was close and confining. Employees were not allowed to leave their places at the production line, and they were not permitted to talk to one another. Their job was to concentrate fully on the task at hand. Few employees could adapt to this system, and they developed ways of talking out of the sides of their mouths, like ventriloquists, and invented a form of speech that became known as the Ford Lisp. Fords obsession with control brought him into greater and greater conflict with managers, who were often fired when they disagreed with him. As a result, many talented people left Ford to join his growing rivals. Outside the workplace, Ford went so far as to establish what he called the Sociological Department to check up on how his employees lived and the ways in which they spent their time. Inspectors from this department visited the homes of employees and investigated their habits and problems. Employees who exhibited behaviours contrary to Fords standards (for instance, if they drank too much or were always in debt) were likely to be fired. Clearly, Fords effort to control his employees led him and his managers to behave in ways that today would be considered unacceptable and unethical, and in the long run would impair an organizations ability to prosper. Two prominent followers of Taylor were Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972), who refined Taylors analysis of work movements and made many contributions to time-and-motion study. The Gilbreths often filmed a worker performing a particular task and then separated the task actions, frame by frame, into their component movements. Their goal was to maximize the efficiency with which each individual task was performed so that gains across tasks would add up to enormous savings of time and effort. Their attempts to develop improved management principles were captured-at times quite humorously-in the movie Cheaper by the Dozen, which depicts how the Gilbreths (with their 12 children) tried to live their own lives according to these efficiency principles and apply them to daily actions such as shaving, cooking, and even raising a family. Eventually, the Gilbreths became increasingly interested in the study of fatigue. They studied how the physical characteristics of the workplace contribute to job stress that often leads to fatigue and thus poor performance. They isolated factors- such as lighting, heating, the colour of walls, and the design of tools and machines-th at result in worker fatigue. Their pioneering studies paved the way for new advances in management theory. In workshops and factories, the work of the Gilbreths, Taylor, and many others had a major effect on the practice of management. In comparison with the old crafts system, jobs in the new system were more repetitive, boring, and monotonous as a result of the application of scientific management principles, and workers became increasingly dissatisfied. Frequently, the management of work settings became a game between workers and managers: Managers tried to initiate work practices to increase performance, and workers tried to hide the true potential efficiency of the work setting in order to protect their own well-being. Administrative Management Theory: Side by side with scientific managers studying the person-task mix to increase efficiency administrative management. Organizational structure is the system of task and authority relationships. It leads that how employees use resources to achieve the organizations goals. Two to high efficiency and of the most influential views regarding the creation of efficient systems of organization effectiveness. administration were developed in Europe. Max Weber, a German professor of sociology, developed one theory. Henri Fayol, the French manager also developed a model of management in the form of certain principles, which are given as under: Fayols Principles of Management Working at the same time as Weber but independently of him, Henri Fayol (1841-1925), the CEO of Comambault Mining, identified 14 principles that he believed to be essential to increasing the efficiency of the management process. Some of the principles that Fayol outlined have faded from contemporary management practices, but most have endured. Division of Labour Job specialization and the division of labour should increase efficiency, especially if managers take steps to lessen workers boredom. Authority and Responsibility Managers have the right to give orders and the power to exhort subordinates for obedience. Unity of Command An employee should receive orders from only one superior. Line of Authority The length of the chain of command that extends from the top to the bottom of an organization should be limited. Centralization Authority should not be concentrated at the top of the chain of command. Unity of Direction The organization should have a single plan of action to guide managers and workers. Equity All organizational members are entitled to be treated with justice and respect. Order The arrangement of organizational positions should maximize organizational efficiency and provide employees with satisfying career opportunities. Initiative Managers should allow employees to be innovative and creative. Discipline Managers need to create a workforce that strives to achieve organizational goals. Remuneration of Personnel The system that managers use to reward employees should be equitable for both employees and the organization. Stability of Tenure of Personnel Long-term employees develop skills that can improve organizational efficiency. Subordination of Individual Interests to the Common Interest Employees should understand how their performance affects the performance of the whole organization. Esprit de Corps Managers should encourage the development of shared feelings of comradeship, enthusiasm, or devotion to a common cause. The principles that Fayol and Weber set forth still provide a clear and appropriate set of guidelines that managers can use to create a work setting that makes efficient and effective use of organizational resources. These principles remain the bedrock of modern management theory; recent researchers have refined or developed them to suit modern conditions. For example, Webers and Fayols concerns for equity and for establishing appropriate links between performance and reward are central themes in contemporary theories of motivation and leadership. Behavioural Management Theory: The study of how managers should behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organization. The behavioural management theorists writing in the first half of the twentieth century all espoused a theme that focused on how managers should personally behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals. The Management Insight indicates how employees can become demoralized when managers do not treat their employees properly. The Hawthorne Studies and Human Relations might be increased through improving various characteristics of the work setting, such as job specialization or the kinds of tools workers used. One series of studies was conducted from 1924 to 1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This research, now known as the Hawthorne studies, began as an attempt to investigate how characteristics of the work setting-specifically the level of lighting or illumination-affect worker fatigue and performance. The researchers conducted an experiment in which they systematically measured worker productivity at various levels of illumination. The experiment produced some unexpected results. The researchers found that regardless of whether they raised or lowered the level of illumination, productivity increased. In fact, productivity began to fall only when the level of illumination dropped to the level of moonlight, a level at which presumably workers could no longer see well enough to do their work efficiently. The researchers found these results puzzling and invited a noted Harvard psychologist, Elton Mayo, to help them. Subsequently, it was found that many other factors also influence worker behaviour, and it was not clear what was actually influencing the Hawthorne workers behaviour. However, this particular effective group, had deliberately adopted a norm of output restriction to protect their jobs. Workers who violated this informal production norm were subjected to sanctions by other group members. Those who violated group performance norms and performed above the norm were called ratebusters; those who performed below the norm were called chiselers. One of the main implications of the Hawthorne studies was that the behaviour of managers and workers in the work setting is as important in explaining the level of performance as the technical aspects of the task. Managers must understand the informal organization The system of behavioural rules and norms that workings of the informal organization, the system of behavioural rules and norms that emerge in a group, when they try to manage or change behaviour in organizations. Many studies have found that, as time passes, groups often develop emerge in a group. elaborate procedures and norms that bond members together, allowing unified action either to cooperate with management in order to raise performance or to restrict output and thwart the attainment of organizational goals. The Hawthorne studies demonstrated the importance of understanding how the feelings, thoughts, and behaviour of work-group members and managers affect performance. It was becoming increasingly clear to researche rs that understanding behaviour in organizations is a complex process that is critical to increasing performance. Indeed, organizational behaviour The study of the factors that have an the increasing interest in the area of management known as organizational behaviour, the study of the factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups respond to and act in organizations, dates from these early studies.