Worksheet 5 - NORA ECCLES HARRISON MUSEUM OF ART Assignment

Worksheet 5 - NORA ECCLES HARRISON MUSEUM OF ART - Assignment Example It is a multinational retail company that sales general merchandise and groceries. WALMART is one of the most valuable companies in the world, the leading retail company and the largest public company. WALMART Company being a business organization, there is need for human asset retention in the human resource sector. This is important for labour provision and daily operations of this company. The retention of human asset can be achieved through SWOT analysis of this company. In each and every year, the company spends millions on labour related lawsuits. This is due to criticism on the poor working conditions, low wages and female discrimination. This makes the company lack skilled and experienced personnel. Cases of employee turnover are very rampart and the company spends much on employee training. This is associated to low trained personnel who are poorly paid. WALMART lacks differentiation from its competitors and faces negative publicity from the many cases of bribery and poor working environment. Improvement of the working conditions, increase in the payment and wages and also good employee training will ensure a strategic plan for human asset

Working out Alternatives Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Working out Alternatives - Case Study Example As a safety precaution, the teams are provided with emergency radios when there is need to report cases such as loss or being hurt among the team members. Information such as the starting point of the race is usually given a day before the event (Kumar, Petersen and Robert70). The team members therefore, have to find means to get through and survive as fast as possible. Adventure racing has its roots in a race set in New Zealand, in the year 1980. The wilderness endurance racing was started when one person accidentally overheard a conversation between Americans to create a wilderness challenge. FAR was founded by Dave Ziestma in the year 1998. In a span of three years, FAR’s ‘raid the north’ series served as an introduction to adventure racing to several Canadians. It also became included in the list of the top race series in North America (Lewis 536). FAR’s races were termed as difficult (Holland and Jackie 248). Of the teams sent out, only about 25% would make it to the finishing line intact and in time. The founder of the race, Zietsma, would usually take part in the race. As a result, many got assured that the race would be safe. His involvement in the race as a top competitor also aided in making the name of the company, making it be at the forefront. Frontier Adventure Racing (FAR) is a popular firm in the North Racing series. The organization has been popular among lovers of adventure racing. Adventure racing may take the definition of a race of individuals using vehicles over some terrain. The event is multi-sport, non-stop and with a mixture of teams. It is therefore essential for team members to ensure that they cross the finish line first and in time. The event borrows from kayaking, mountain biking and running. Its popularity grew in New Zealand, Australia and in Europe. Therefore, in the last decades, the event has attracted media attention as well as many players. In retrospect, FAR one of the players of Adventure

Hedge Funds and Their Role in 2008 Financial Crisis Essay

Hedge Funds and Their Role in 2008 Financial Crisis - Essay Example They are not regulated in the same sense as mutual funds. Mostly, high net worth individuals and some pension funds invest in hedge funds. It is not mandatory for them to be registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission because they are not supposed to provide information regarding their operation and valuation in public. The paper tries to explore the early history of hedge funds and how prima facie they are different from mutual funds. The paper also focuses on their role and the impact they created during 2008 financial crisis and also what regulatory measures are currently in force to regulate them. Genesis of Hedge Funds Mallaby emphasizes that Alfred Winslow Jones was the first global hedge-fund manager starting his operations in 1949 without any formal qualification and perhaps he set the tone and style of the functioning of hedge funds that are in vogue today. His way of charging the performance fee was different wherein a straight 20 percent cut was made on net gain s while distributing the profits. This deduction was over and above the management fee and even today most hedge-funds continue to have their performance fee policy in the same line. The fund was called so because all along investments were hedged simultaneously – short-selling some of the weaker stocks to mitigate the systemic risks. He used leveraging as a tool to hedge investments. It is worth noting that Jones’s firm made an astounding return of around 5000% during the year 1949 through 1968. Investopedia states that in 1968, around 140 hedge funds were in operations in the US though most of them were out of business due to slump in subsequent years. The hedge funds saw renaissance in the early 1990s but again, many of them including high-profile hedge funds such as Robertson's were in trouble during dotcom crisis of 2000. Hedge Fund Is Not a Mutual Fund Hedge funds are not mutual funds and they differ in several ways. Mutual funds have a large number of retail inv estors while hedge fund is not interested in a retail exposure and limit itself to a few high-net worth investors. After a minimum lock-in period, investors are free to withdraw the funds in mutual funds but hedge funds usually have a longer lock-out period during which investors cannot withdraw their investments. A mutual fund needs to register with Security Exchange Commission while hedge fund does not have such compulsion. Mutual funds do not undertake speculative activities and focus on returns relative to the bench-mark index. For example, if the bench-mark index goes down by 7 percent but the mutual fund investment goes down by only 4 percent then that will imply that mutual fund has performed better. In contrast, hedge funds focus on absolute returns regardless of the movement of market index. That is why hedge funds employ numerous strategies to earn high returns such as long or short positions on derivative instruments, options and futures. Mutual funds do not resort to suc h strategies to enhance their returns as they are governed by a host of regulatory measures (Investopedia). Role of Hedge Funds in 2008 Financial Crisis Chung argues that hedge funds were not behind the financial crisis of 2008; however, there is no guarantee that they will not cause one in future. Regulatory authorities, fund managers and lawyers believe that banks and financial institutions were largely responsible for the recent financial crisis because they invested heavily in subprime mortgages. The study also revealed that short-selling done by hedge funds did not aggravate the crisis. Hedge funds are not required to be brought under the scanner of policy makers; nevertheless, it is suggested that regulators need to keep a watchful eye on their activities. Accordingly, now hedge-funds firms are needed to register

A comparison of Boeing & Airbus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

A comparison of Boeing & Airbus - Essay Example Here the researcher has discussed the operational management and strategies of two leading aircraft manufacturing companies. Therefore, researcher mainly stressed on five key aspects of operational performance objectives which are quality, speed, dependability, cost and flexibility. The various components of the operational management techniques have been discussed in details with emphasis on indispensable ingredients which can help the buyers. The quality assurance techniques need to be supervised and monitored in such a way so that the end results can be delivered in accordance with the proposed or assured quality. The speed is an important in the airlines industry. So, the researcher draws a comparison between the speeds of two companies. Finally, the flexibility, cost and dependability will discuss to highlight the operational efficiencies. Introduction In present corporate scenario, the international business management plays a crucial role to manage the business network (operat ion management) across the globe. So, most of the companies introduce innovative strategies to enhance the business network and reduce the competition. In this sense, strategic management is an integral part of international business management. ... Strategic management provides sustainability to a business entity in the competitive market. It gives a clear picture to the employees about their job culture and co-relates it with the organizational goals. Operational strategy helps in increasing the productivity of the firm and maximizes the skills of the employees by introducing new work cultures and providing new area of work. Thus, strategic management is beneficial to a firm in various important aspects. This study will throw light on the contribution of strategic operations management as well as the operational performance of two leading airlines company Boeing and Airbus (Owen and Maidment, 2009 p.142). Company overview Boeing Boeing is one of the largest aerospace companies in the World. The corporate office of the Boeing is established in Chicago. The company is specialised for manufacturing commercial jetliners and defence, space and security systems. This is the top exporter which attaches with the 150 countries’ allied governments and airlines companies. The product and service range of the company includes military and commercial aircraft, weapons, satellites, lunch system, defence and electronics system, communication and advanced information systems and performance based training and logistics. The aerospace company is traditionally specialised in innovation and leadership. The primary objective of the company is to meet the emerging customer needs through its continuous expansion of the product line. There are 170000 employees are connected with the business network throughout the world. The operational efficiency of Boeing shows the quality of the employee force. There are two customized business unit i.e. Boeing Commercial Airplanes and Boeing Defence, Space & Security. The company also has

Hedge Funds and Their Role in 2008 Financial Crisis Essay

Hedge Funds and Their Role in 2008 Financial Crisis - Essay Example They are not regulated in the same sense as mutual funds. Mostly, high net worth individuals and some pension funds invest in hedge funds. It is not mandatory for them to be registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission because they are not supposed to provide information regarding their operation and valuation in public. The paper tries to explore the early history of hedge funds and how prima facie they are different from mutual funds. The paper also focuses on their role and the impact they created during 2008 financial crisis and also what regulatory measures are currently in force to regulate them. Genesis of Hedge Funds Mallaby emphasizes that Alfred Winslow Jones was the first global hedge-fund manager starting his operations in 1949 without any formal qualification and perhaps he set the tone and style of the functioning of hedge funds that are in vogue today. His way of charging the performance fee was different wherein a straight 20 percent cut was made on net gain s while distributing the profits. This deduction was over and above the management fee and even today most hedge-funds continue to have their performance fee policy in the same line. The fund was called so because all along investments were hedged simultaneously – short-selling some of the weaker stocks to mitigate the systemic risks. He used leveraging as a tool to hedge investments. It is worth noting that Jones’s firm made an astounding return of around 5000% during the year 1949 through 1968. Investopedia states that in 1968, around 140 hedge funds were in operations in the US though most of them were out of business due to slump in subsequent years. The hedge funds saw renaissance in the early 1990s but again, many of them including high-profile hedge funds such as Robertson's were in trouble during dotcom crisis of 2000. Hedge Fund Is Not a Mutual Fund Hedge funds are not mutual funds and they differ in several ways. Mutual funds have a large number of retail inv estors while hedge fund is not interested in a retail exposure and limit itself to a few high-net worth investors. After a minimum lock-in period, investors are free to withdraw the funds in mutual funds but hedge funds usually have a longer lock-out period during which investors cannot withdraw their investments. A mutual fund needs to register with Security Exchange Commission while hedge fund does not have such compulsion. Mutual funds do not undertake speculative activities and focus on returns relative to the bench-mark index. For example, if the bench-mark index goes down by 7 percent but the mutual fund investment goes down by only 4 percent then that will imply that mutual fund has performed better. In contrast, hedge funds focus on absolute returns regardless of the movement of market index. That is why hedge funds employ numerous strategies to earn high returns such as long or short positions on derivative instruments, options and futures. Mutual funds do not resort to suc h strategies to enhance their returns as they are governed by a host of regulatory measures (Investopedia). Role of Hedge Funds in 2008 Financial Crisis Chung argues that hedge funds were not behind the financial crisis of 2008; however, there is no guarantee that they will not cause one in future. Regulatory authorities, fund managers and lawyers believe that banks and financial institutions were largely responsible for the recent financial crisis because they invested heavily in subprime mortgages. The study also revealed that short-selling done by hedge funds did not aggravate the crisis. Hedge funds are not required to be brought under the scanner of policy makers; nevertheless, it is suggested that regulators need to keep a watchful eye on their activities. Accordingly, now hedge-funds firms are needed to register

Art History Comparison of Persistence of Memory by Salvador Dali and Research Paper

Art History Comparison of Persistence of Memory by Salvador Dali and Better Homes, Better Gardens by Kerry James Marshall - Research Paper Example For many artists, the inspiration for their works stems from the things that they know or have experience with.   Salvador Dali included the cliffs of his beloved Catalan Coast in many of his paintings, including his most notorious â€Å"Persistence of Memory†, not only because they were a landscape feature he was intimately familiar with, but also because they helped to represent the duality of meaning he wished to convey in his artwork.   In a similar way, the African-American artist Kerry James Marshall has worked to include his own experience and background into his paintings in such a way that they work to provide a meaningful background to his subjects, adding subtleties of meaning to the overall work that helps to portray his idea of what the painting is attempting to say.  In both works of art, the background plays a large role in establishing the meaning of the work. Although the Catalan cliffs might not have the same impact on an uninformed viewer than they wou ld have on someone who is intimately familiar with the changing faces of these cliffs as the sunlight plays across their face, they nevertheless add a nuance of meaning to â€Å"Persistence of Memory† that might otherwise be lost, especially for individuals who have seen them first-hand or know anything about the background of the artist. For Dali, the cliffs of the background represented the physical equivalent of his â€Å"principle of paranoiac metamorphosis.† Dali is quoted as saying â€Å"All the images capable of being suggested by the complexity of their innumerable irregularities appear successively and by turn as you change your position. This was so objectifiable that the fishermen of the region had since time immemorial baptized each of these imposing conglomerations – the camel, the eagle, the anvil, the monk, the dead woman, the lion’s head. [†¦] I discovered in this perpetual disguise the profound meaning of that modesty of nature whic h Heraclitus referred to in his enigmatic phrase ‘Nature likes to conceal herself.’† (Descharnes & Neret 1994 p. 171).

Humanistic Theory According To Abraham Maslow Education Essay

Humanistic Theory According To Abraham Maslow Education Essay This is the psychological perspective popularized by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow that emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth. The overriding assumption is that humans have free will and are not simply fated to behave in specific ways or are zombies blindly reacting to their environment. The humanists stated that the subject matter or psychology is the human subjective experience of the world how human experience things, why they experience things, etc. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individuals behavior is connected to his inner feelings and self-image. Unlike the behaviorists, humanistic psychologists believe that humans are not solely the product of their environment. Rather humanistic psychologists study human meanings, understandings, and experiences involved in growing, teaching and learning. They emphasize characteristics that are shared by all human beings such as love, grief, caring and self worth. Humanistic psychologists study how people are influenced by their self-perceptions and the person meanings attached to their experiences. Humanistic psychologists are not primarily concerned with instinctual drives, responses to external stimuli, or past experiences. Rather, they consider conscious choices, responses to internal needs, and current circumstances to be important in shaping human behavior. Humanistic theory is based upon the idea that everyone has the potential to make a contribution to society and be a good and likeable person if their needs are fulfilled. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers led the humanistic theory movement and it was Maslow who developed the pyramid of needs. Maslow believed that fulfilling the needs in the correct order would allow individuals to become self actualised, fully able persons. So only after the basic physiological needs such as food, shelter, warmth are met can individuals move on to the next stages; the need to feel secure, to be loved and accepted etc. Maslow developed his theory not by studying mentally ill patients, which is where much psychological knowledge had derived from up to that point, but by studying healthy, productive, creative individuals lives and careers. He concluded that there were common characteristics which were shared by successful individuals including self acceptance, openness and respect for other individuals. Carl Rogers felt that, in addition to Maslows hierarchical needs, in order for a person to develop fully that they needed to be in an environment which would provide them with genuineness, acceptance and empathy and that without such a nourishing environment healthy personalities and relationships would be unable to flourish. Humanistic theory is basically about the development of the individual. It was very popular in the 1970s but seems to be slightly out of favour today as Western nations have generally moved slightly towards the political right and there is more emphasis on conforming and contributing to, a slightly more conservative society. Of course, whilst humanistic theory does have a very strong focus on the individual, it is based upon the belief that well developed, successful individuals are best placed to make a positive contribution to society. Humanistic theory suggests that the achievement of happiness is frequently dependent upon achieving, or giving yourself the licence to, investigate and pursue your own deepest interests and desires. Humanistic Theory according to Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow has been considered the Father of Humanistic Psychology. Maslows theory is based on the notion that experience is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior. He placed emphasis on choice, creativity, values, self-realization, all distinctively human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were more important than objectivity. For Maslow, development of human potential, dignity and worth are ultimate concerns. Maslow rejected behaviorist views and Freuds theories on the basis of their reductionistic approaches. He felt Freuds view of human nature was negative, and he valued goodness, nobility and reason. Also, Freud concentrated on the mentally ill, and Maslow was interested in healthy human psychology. Maslow and his colleagues came to refer to their movement as third force psychology, the first two being psychoanalysis and behaviorism. The third force is based on philosophies of existentialism and humanism. He is famous for proposing that human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs. The lowest level of needs are physiological and survival needs such as hunger and thirst. Further levels include belonging and love, self-esteem, and self-actualization. From Maslows perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic. The purpose of learning is to bring about self-actualization, and the goals of educators should include this process. Learning contributes to psychological health. Maslow proposed other goals of learning, including discovery of ones vocation or destiny; knowledge of values; realization of life as precious, acquisition of peak experiences, sense of accomplishment, satisfaction of psychological needs, awareness of beauty and wonder in life, impulse control, developing choice, and grappling with the critical existential problems of life. Maslows theory of learning highlighted the differences between experiential knowledge and spectator knowledge. He regarded spectator, or scientific, knowledge to be inferior to experiential. Properties of experiential learning include: immersion in the experience without awareness of the flow of time momentarily not being self-conscious transcending time, place, history, and society by being beyond and unaffected by them merging with that which is being experienced being innocently receptive, as a child, uncritical suspending temporarily evaluation of the experience in terms of its importance or unimportance lack of inhibition, subsiding of selfishness, fear, defensiveness experience unfolds naturally without striving or effort suspending criticism, validation, and evaluation of the experience trusting experience by passively letting it happen; letting go of preconceived notions disengaging from logical, analytical, and rational activities Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Physiological Needs They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the persons search for satisfaction. We need these for basic survival. Maslows theory said that you need to satisfy first the basic needs like Physiological needs and Safety needs, to get motivation to truly attain the higher-level needs like social needs and esteem. Safety Needs When all physiological needs are satisfied and no longer dominating our thoughts and behaviors, we progress to safety needs. A persons attention turns to safety and security for himself/ herself to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by: Living in a safe area Medical insurance Job security Financial reserves These include the need for security. We often have little awareness of these, except in times of emergency disorganization in social structure (war time, terrorist acts, domestic violence, natural disasters). Maslows hierarchy said that, if a person feels that he or she is in harms way, higher needs would not be attained that quickly. Belongingness Love needs When a person has attained the lower level like Physiological and Safety needs, higher level needs become important, the first of which are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with other people like: Need for friends Need for belonging Need to give and receive love When safety and physiological needs are met, we desire, to be loved by others and to belong. Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness alienation. This involves both giving receiving love, affection the sense of belonging (family, friends, social groups). Esteem Needs After the first 3 classes of needs are met, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem for the esteem a person gets from others. Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external. Self respect and achievement are some examples of Internal esteem needs. Social status and recognition are some examples of External esteem needs. Some esteem needs are: Self-respect Achievement Attention Recognition Reputation Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless worthless. Need for Self-Actualization When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. The last necessity is the Self Actualization or Fulfillment Needs. This includes purposed, personal growth, and the full realization of ones potentials. This is the point where people start becoming fully functional, acting purely on their own volition, and having a healthy personality. Maslow describes self-actualization as a persons need to be do that which the person was born to do. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write. These needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness (person feels edgy, tense, lacking something, restless.) The person must be true to his or her own nature, be what you are meant to be. Maslow believed that very few people reach the state of self-actualization. Although we all have the need to move toward the goal of reaching our full potential, other needs may get in the way. Misconceptions about Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Maslow himself agreed that his 5-level need hierarchy oversimplifies the relationship between needs behavior. The order of needs makes sense for most of us, though there may be some notable exceptions (e.g., some people need to satisfy their needs for self-esteem respect before they can enter a love relationship). We may so desire fulfilling a need that we sacrifice others below it. For example, a person with a passion for acting might sacrifice his or her hunger, which is one of physiological needs, to pursue a career in acting even though the payment is barely enough and struggling to live while trying to make a name for themselves in the business. Maslow was interested in studying people who are psychologically healthy. These were people who had become self-actualized. He interviewed these people to see how they were able to satisfy all of the needs on the hierarchy. He conducted what he called a holistic analysis in which he sought general impressions from his efforts to understand these people in depth. What are Self-Actualized People Like? They tend to accept themselves for what they are. They freely admit their weaknesses, but do make attempts to improve. They dont worry excessively over the mistakes they have made, but instead focus on improving. They respect feel good about themselves. However, this self love is healthy not narcissistic. They are less restricted by cultural norms than the average person. They feel free to express their desires, even if contrary to the popular view. These people have frequent peak experiences, in which time place are transcended, anxieties are lost, a unity of self with the universe is obtained (birth of a child, marriage, deciding to go to school). Humanistic Theory according to Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was a central figure in the humanistic movement of personality psychology. He lived from 1902 till 1987. In the span of his life, he was an instrumental figure in the understanding of the individual as a central point of the study of human potential. He believed that within each individual lies an innate desire and motivation to learn in order to progress to a higher level of achievement and self-development. Both Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers work became popularly known in the mid-1980s as the human potential movement. This categorization of their work became the ground where psychologists used their conceptual framework to study the impact on ones personality as well as in the field of education, among others. One of his famous quotes epitomized his conceptual framework, The only person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change. This quotation reflected his theoretical conception that people must be able to create a learning curve that will enable them to change towards a new chapter in their self-development. According to Rogers (1951), people can be tuned to learn to unlock themselves from an environment that constricts their potential because of preconceived notions of how they should be. Rogers believed that people who are restricted by their perception of the environment in which they exist in have a debilitating effect on how they may view their potential. However, if an individual is able to overcome the faulty perception(s) of the environment, and learn to acknowledge the potential to grow, then the individual may initiate steps as well as processes towards this end. Rogers strongly advocated that a growing individual is on where he or she is aware of a progress of ongoing internal change, and an acceptance of oneself. Rogers further emphasized that individuals will inevitably experience positive development if they are exposed to supportive environmental condition. By his understanding of supportive environmental condition, Rogers believed that social factors contribute to positive development. Rogers (1982), quoted by Pfaffenberger. A, 2007, p 508, emphatically stated that in his opinion, all humans will display compassion and cooperation if they are provided with the appropriate environmental supports. Therefore, Rogers was of the view that learning in a supportive environmental condition was crucial to the development of oneself. In a much later publication, Rogers (1982) also placed emphasis on growth-enhancing relationships that facilitate inner awareness and congruence which allowed motivation of effort towards a certain objective. Rogers postulated that relationships that provide for an awareness of oneself in differing situations can lead to personal growth. For example, if a child learns that he or she is nurtured in a caring family and with acceptance (relationship factor), he or she is more adapted to see situational variables (such as studies, or skill based acquisition) as motivation towards achieving objectives. However, it is notable that this presumption of Rogers may be faulty because it is argued that situational variables can also work to the detriment of the individual. In contrast, Abraham Maslow (1968) explicitly acknowledged that difficult circumstances can also be growth-enhancing. Much research had been conducted to investigate how growth-enhancing relationships and situational variables may trigger different affect. One of the more definitive studies was conducted by L. King (2001), (quoted by Pfaffenberger. A, 2007, p 510). In this study, King investigated the influence of challenging and limiting life events on personality development as measured by Loevingers (1976) SCT Sentence Completion Test. The study concluded that cognitive abilities and personality structures interact with life circumstances, and that the nature of this interaction is relevant to whether growth occurs (p, 511). This study also supports Rollo Mays (1958) theory of existential therapy, where clients are taught to constructively work with their limitations and to create freedom so that they can choose values, meanings, and their levels of commitment. Theoretical orientations of Rogers humanistic concept: The humanistic orientation of Rogers theory can be essentially encapsulated using two (2) theories. The two (2) theories are the person-centred personality theory and the self-determination theory. Person-centred theory For almost fifty (50) years since his earlier publication of A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships, developed under the Client-centred Framework, Rogers (1959), the person-centred movement and client-centred approach towards counselling and psycho-therapy are also generalized to other fields of knowledge. The crux of the person-centred personality theory is the assumption that human beings have an inherent tendency towards growth, development, and optimal functioning. According to Rogers (1959), quoted by Patterson and Joseph, 2007, p 120, the person-centred approach offers a dynamic, process-focused account of personality development and functioning,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ What this means is that, every human is born with an innate motivational drive, known as the actualizing tendency. Actualizing tendency is defined by Rogers (1959) as, the inherent tendency of the organism to develop all of its capacities in ways which serve to maintain or enhance the organismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦development towards autonomy and away from heteronomy, or control by external forces. (p 196) (Quoted by Patterson and Joseph, 2007, p 120) Every individual possesses some capacity that allows him or her to realize the inherent potential within. One of the key implications of Rogers actualizing tendency lies in how individuals undertake to bring out the potential. According to Rogers, the impact of the environmental conditions is a determining factor. Under favourable social-environmental conditions, Rogers proposed that the individuals self-concept actualizes in accordance with his or her organismic valuing process (OVP). The OVP refers to the evaluation of experiences in a manner consistent with ones intrinsic needs: Rogers summed it by declaring that, the human infant is seen as having an inherent motivational system and a regulatory system (the valuing process) which by its feedback keeps the organism on the beam of satisfying his motivational needs. (Rogers, 1959, p 222). Even from young, every individual is keen to fulfil some of his or her intrinsic needs; those that are not dependent on externalities or due to any prior learning. An example is how children recognize the importance of exploration whilst learning and/or playing. In the process, children discover more about themselves, about the environment, about others and about life in general. As children learn to correlate these experiences into their organization of self-concept, they begin to instil a sense of their OVP learning to evaluate the experiences based on their intrinsic needs. The concept of OVP is important to the central theme of Rogers theoretical framework. Important to Rogers understanding is his (1957) terminology of a fully functioning person an ideal of autonomous psychological functioning that occurs when self-actualization is organismically congruent. This concept is similar to Maslow (1970) and presupposes that individuals must firstly satisfy their most fundamental needs. In his later works, Rogers (1963 and 1964) proposed that the attitudes and behaviours of more fully functioning individuals are consistent with certain internally generated value directions. The value directions include moving toward increasingly socialized goals, where sensitivity to others and acceptance of others is positively valued and where deep relationships are positively valued, and moving in the direction of greater openness to experience, where the person comes to value an openness to all of his or her inner and outer experience ( Rogers, 1964, p 166). Rogers acknowledged that conditions or the social-environmental factors are not always ideal for the emergence of a fully functioning person. Situations like this give rise to a state of incongruence. There is a state of tension and internal confusion. When an unfavourable social environment is present, the actualizing tendency is thwarted, Rogers (1959). The actualizing tendency is compromised by the conditions of worth. Conditions of worth are conceptualized as the values that are introjected by the individual from his or her social interactions and that stem from the developing infants need for positive regard from significant others in his or her social environment. In this respect, if an infant receives positive regard that is conditional, then he or she learns to evaluate experiences according to whether or not they satisfy the externally imposed conditions. As the child develops, the conditions of worth are introjected, meaning that they act as an internalized social order and replacing organismic valuing as the principle governing the individuals attitudes and behaviour. Self-Determination Theory This is a contemporary organismic theory formulated by Deci, E.L and Ryan, R. M, (1985, 1991, 2000) that focused on motivation and personality functioning that emphasizes the central rule of the individuals inner resources for personality development and behavioural self-regulation. This theory is similar to the person-centred theory in that self-determination theory views the individual as an active growth-oriented organism, attempting to actualize his or her potentialities within the environment in which he or she functions. A summary of the self-determination theory carries the following elements: Human beings are inherently proactive; have potential to act on and master both the inner forces and the external, Human beings, as self-organizing systems, have an inherent tendency toward growth, development, and integrated functioning, For people to actualize their inherent nature and potentials, people require nutrients from the social environment. Adapted from Deci and Vansteenkiste, 2004, pp 23-24, (quoted by Patterson and Joseph, 2007, p 124) In self-determination theory, one of the major sources of motivation and/or OVP is the recognition whether the behaviour is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Intrinsic motivation/regulation is equivalent to acting in accordance with OVP. At the same time, there are three (3) subcategories of extrinsic motivation that may account for extrinsic regulations. Perceived locus of causality/ Locus of evaluation describe the individuals perception as to whether the motivation is located internally or externally = person-centred construct of locus of evaluation (Rogers, 1959), Basic needs/ Necessary and Sufficient conditions need for competence, relatedness, and autonomy; essential for facilitating psychological growth and integration, social development, and personal well-being. Competence refers to our need to control outcomes, and to be efficacious in our environment, autonomy refers to the individuals attempts to be a self-determining agent of his or her own attitudes and behaviour, while relatedness describes the urge to be in relationship with others, caring for others, and being cared for by others. Self-determination theory hypothesized that, for the individual to experience an ongoing sense of integrity and well-being, each of these three basic needs must be met throughout the life-span. This hypothesis supports the contention that certain, social-environmental conditions nurture self-regulation based on organismic valuing and lead to a process of growth and change in the direction of healthy functioning and psychological well-being. Contingent Self-Esteem/Conditional Self-Regard refers to the influence of people viewed as significant others (Deci Ryan, 1995; Ryan Brown, 2003). This is similar to the person-centred view of conditional self-regard. There exists a great amount of similarities between the person-centred and the self-determination theory. Both theories postulate that the path to psychological well-being involves following an innate guidance mechanism. This understanding is important to the field of learning because each individual has a different subset of characteristics that may promote and/or hinder learning. In this respect, knowing what triggers effective learning, providing conducive environment, taking into account an individuals OVP, social factors, as well as structuring the curriculum are necessary to enhance the optimal level of learning. Humanistic theory proposed understanding humans as a state of being, a dynamic and ever-changing situation where each individual is seen as always striving to fulfil the potential within. APPLICATION IN EDUCATION In the field of education, humanistic theory grants educators important conceptual understanding about the role of learners. From Maslow and Rogers, educators have a better insight into the elements of learners style and dimensions of absorption of knowledge and utilization of skills and abilities. In his paper, Humanistic Self-Instruction, the author, R. Craig Hogan (1978) suggested that instructors/educators should demonstrate their appreciation and value of the individual learners by viewing them as objects that have unique and specific needs. The negative implications of treating the learners as empty jars or blank slates is that many instructors/educators feel that learners are passive receivers only; filling the learners as the instructors/educators wish. This negative implications are serious to warrant attention as instructors/educators may force learners to be receptive and have no obligation whatsoever to consider his or her individuality and autonomy in learning. According to Chris Argyris, in his book, Intervention Theory and Method: A Behavioural Science View, 1970, pp 15-16, we see them (learners) and they see themselves as autonomous, responsible individuals committed to the direction the intervention is taking, making free choices based on sufficient valid information about the means and ends. It is a common error that most instructors/educators as well as educational institutions assume that learners need to be instructed as to their learning. This assumption works on the premise that effective learning must follow certain syllabus, instructional method(s) and assessment grading. The education system in most countries is mostly rigid; built along the tried and tested formula of the existing structure of instructed teaching. In cases such as these, the classroom may contain students of varying levels of interest, self-management skill, independence versus dependent minded, industrious versus sluggard and bright as well as lesser bright ones. The methodology of teaching would be uniform across all All are fed the same the same fare at the same rate in the same way. The classroom atmosphere suppresses individuality, autonomy, and freedom by stifling students initiative to manage their own learning at every level of responsibility. Self-directed learning is minimized (Hogan, 1978, pp 262-263) Combination of group contingencies and cooperative learning in adopting humanistic principles The conceptual understanding of group contingencies is that it is primarily derived from behavioural learning theory (Bandura, 1969). The theory behind group contingencies is that a group is rewarded if it collectively meets some standard; and the members of the group apply social sanctions to one another to encourage group members to do what is necessary to ensure that the group will be successful (Slavin 1987). Group contingencies are also workable if the reward/sanction is used in tangent to the efforts of individual member of the group. This creates a situation where each individual makes him or herself liable and responsible for the success of the group. In this, the humanist tendencies are activated in each of the individual. Cooperative learning refers to a set of instructional methods in which students are encouraged or required to work together on academic tasks. Cooperative learning methods may be as simple as having students sit together to discuss or help one another with classroom tasks. Rewards may be offered; as in group contingencies but are not essential (Slavin, 1987, p 31). An aspect of cooperative learning that is vital is the element of peer interaction. The quality of the peer interaction determines the extent of the learning and the success of the completion of tasks. The effectiveness of cooperative learning is best seen in two (2) studies (Hulten DeVries, 1976; Slavin, 1980) which found that providing recognition to student teams based on the sum of their individual learning increased student achievement even if students were not permitted to interact in class. In the same vein, a German study, (Huber, Bogatzki, Winter, 1982) found that providing students an opportunity to study together did not increase their achievement, but adding group rewards based on individual learning did lead to enhanced achievement. (Slavin, 1987, p 33) Therefore, the researches listed above clearly supports the position that cooperative reward structures, or group contingencies, based on individual learning of group members are necessary for the success of these methods in improving student achievement. Peer interaction is also found to be important to the success of cooperative strategies. [Webb, (1985), Peterson Janicki, (1979)] Students are motivated to engage in elaborated, cognitively involving explanations and discussions if the learning of their group mates is made important by the provision of group rewards based on individual learning performances (Slavin, 1983). One of the important findings of Slavins study has found positive effects of cooperative learning non race relations, attitudes, self-esteem and other non-academic outcomes (1983). Humanistic understanding of education is not specifically confined to the individual per se but rather emphasizes on how learners/students are able to gain the right concept of themselves and pursue towards growth. In this, cooperative learning has a major role if the outcomes point to similar outcomes. Humanistic theory and learning in Adult Education Humanistic application is most seen in adult learning. For most adults, the adage of more is caught than taught is true. According to a paper presentation by Jackson, Sanetta. George, Cooks, Alyce; Hackney, Darwyn; Stevens, Claude; and Zumwait, Dave, (2002), this adage refers to the informal and incidental learning that takes place on a daily basis and in most situations. In these situations, the learning revolves around human relationships. It is common knowledge that the psychological learning environment of adults and non-adults are significantly different. By virtue of adults ability to make decisions regarding their personal growth and development; especially in learning, humanistic theory provides for a deeper insight into understanding the psychological learning environment of adults. The psychological learning environment is defined as creating a climate in which both learners and teachers are able to engage in genuine exchange. (Jackson, et.al) For teachers, this means that learners need to feel a sense of welcome and at ease, attending to the fears and doubts that adult